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EDWIN C. VOORHIES

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
DAVIS, CALIFORNIA

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THE
STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

PLATE I.

[2'o/oce p. I.

THE STOCKFEEDER'S
COMPANION

JOHN PORTER, B.Sc., N.D.A., N.D.D.

Head of the Agricultural Department and Lecturer in Agriculture
under the Herefordshire County Council

Formerly Science Master, Soham Grammar School, Cambs., County

Organiser of Agricultural Education and Lecturer in

Agriculture under the Edinburgh and East of

Scotland College of Agriculture

WITH 33 FULL-PAGE AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS
IN TEXT

LONDON
GURNEY AND JACKSON

EDINBURGH: OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT

1915

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

LIBRARY

PREFACE

SOME excellent books have been written onkthe subject
of Foods and Feeding, but, generally speaking, the
language employed is rather too technical to be
readily understood by farmers in general, or even
students at Farm Institutes ; hence the writer has
felt, for some time, that an attempt should be made
to write in simpler language a small book on the
various problems which either directly or indirectly
affect the Stockfeeder. In fact, considerable pains
have been taken to present the information in a
way that will be really helpful to the feeder of stock
Another feature of the book is that the feeding trials
referred to are almost entirely British. Matters of
purely scientific interest have, as a rule, been omitted,
and a new " approximate method " of building up
rations, devised by the writer, has been introduced,
which should be a great help to feeders.

Under the Fertiliser and Feeding Stuffs Act, it is
necessary for the seller of artificially compounded foods
to give on the invoice the minimum percentage of
albuminoids and oil which the food contains ; but after
very careful study, the writer finds that it would be
an enormous advantage to the farmer when purchasing
food, as well as when compounding rations, if the
fibre content of the purchased food was also stated

vi PREFACE

When this fact becomes thoroughly appreciated, an
effort will no doubt be made to extend the Act so
as to include fibre as well as albuminoids and oil in
the guaranteed analysis. Meanwhile, one will need
to rely on the average percentage of fibre found
in the particular food, when making up rations, etc.

The building up of rations has been dealt with in
the " approximate method " from the farmer's point
of view. Generally speaking, the bulky part of the
ration is produced on the farm, and is fed more or
less ad libitum. The concentrated food, on the other
hand, has to be purchased to a large extent ; hence
the importance of knowing which foods to buy in
order to meet the deficiencies in the bulky food for
the particular object in view. A good deal of space
has therefore been devoted to the compounding of
rations for different animals, so as to give the feeder
as much help as possible in this direction.

There is much confusion in the minds of farmers
as to the technical difference between crude
albuminoids and true albuminoids. In practice, when
albuminoids are mentioned on an invoice, the
percentage refers chiefly to true albuminoids ; hence
it was considered best in a book of this kind to use
the term albuminoids for true albuminoids only, and
the term nitrogenous matter or protein for crude
albuminoids.

The general scheme of the book is to show the
relation between plants and animals — how . plants
supply the needs of the animal ; then, after giving a
full description of the foods available, to show how
they may be utilised in a rational and economical

PREFACE vii

manner for the feeding of farm live - stock. Many
points have been dealt with which are not ordinarily
found in books on Foods and Feeding, because they
have an indirect if not a direct bearing on the subject.

The writing of this book has involved much
laborious calculation in order to present some of the
tables in a form which would be readily understood,
as well as careful study of the reports of feeding
trials carried out in Great Britain, many of which
are specially referred to ; and although the book
may have many shortcomings, it is hoped that it
will be really helpful to the feeder of stock and at
the same time useful to Farm Institute students.

In conclusion, I must express my thanks to Dr
Crowther for allowing me to include two very important
tables which he has compiled on the average composi-
tion of farm foods and manurial constituents of the
same ; also to my brother, Edward Porter, B.Sc.,
F.A.C. (Glas.), and my colleague, Allan S. M'William,
B.Sc., N.D.A., N.D.D., who have given me valuable
assistance in revising the proof sheets, and made several
useful suggestions.

I must also acknowledge with thanks the readiness
with which the Board of Agriculture has lent me
books bearing on the subject from its library.

JOHN PORTER.

SHIREHALL, HEREFORD,
February 1915.

CONTENTS

(i) RELATION BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

CHAP. PAQE

I. THE ROUND OF NATURE i

Relation between Plants and Animals.

(2) How THE PLANT SUPPLIES FOOD FOR
ANIMALS.

II. ESSENTIALS OF PLANT GROWTH . 4

Water — Tilth in Soils — Humus— Carbon — Minerals
and Nitrogen in the form of Salts — Absorption
of Minerals.

III. MANUFACTURE OF FOOD MATERIALS BY PLANTS . 7

Carbohydrates — Fat and Oil — Amides — Albumi-
noids— Fibre — Ash Constituents.

IV. ESTIMATION OF NUTRIENT CONSTITUENTS IN

PLANTS . . . . . .10

Moisture — Nitrogenous Matter — Oil — Fibre — Ash —
Carbo-hydrates.

(3) How THE ANIMAL UTILISES THE FOOD
STORED UP BY PLANTS.

V. COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY . . .13

Water — Protein — Fat — Composition of Increase —

Mineral Matter.
ix A 2

x CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

VI. BODY REQUIREMENTS FROM FOOD . . .19

Body Temperature — Mechanical Work — Mainten-
ance— Production.

VII. THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION . . . .21

Organised Ferments — Unorganised Ferments.
VIII. MASTICATION, RUMINATION, AND DIGESTION . 24
Mastication — Stomach of Ruminant — Rumination —
The Stomach of Non-Ruminant — Small In-
testines— Intestinal Juices.

IX. BACTERIAL DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION . . 28

Bacteria — Absorption of Digested Food Material —
Destiny of Absorbed Nutrients.

X. FUNCTIONS OF FOOD NUTRIENTS . . .31

Carbohydrates — Fat — Albuminoids — Amides —
Crude Fibre— Ash— Water.

XI. COMPENSATING NUTRIENT MATERIAL, ETC. . . 40

Respiration — Excretion.

(4) AVAILABLE FOODS; THEIR AVERAGE
COMPOSITIONS AND DIGESTIBILITIES.

XII. FOODS AND FEEDING STUFFS. . . -43

(a} Concentrates rich in Oil : Linseed — Oil Extrac-
tion— Cotton Seed — Soya Beans — Hemp Seed
— Earth-nut — Sunflower Seed — Rape Seed —
Kapok Seeds — Palm-nut Kernels — Cocoa-nut
Kernels . . . . . -44

(&) Oil-cakes low in Fibre : Linseed Cakes — Decorti-
cated Cotton Cakes — Earth-nut Cakes — Soya
Bean Cake— Para Rubber Seed Cake— Maize
Germ Cake — Sesame Cake . . -53

(c) Oil-cakes fairly high in Fibre : Cocoa-nut
Cake — Coprah Cake — Palm-kernel Cake —
Rape Cakes — Undecorticated Cotton Cakes —
Kapok Cakes — Sunflower Cake — Hemp
Cake . . . . . -59

CONTENTS xi

XII. FOODS AND FEEDING STUFFS— Continued.

(d) Compound Cakes . . . . -63

(e) Leguminous Seeds : Gram — Java Beans . 64
(/) Cereal Grains . . . . -65
(g) Miscellaneous Seeds : Acorns — Buckwheat . 65
(h) Wheat By-products : Milling Process — Fine

Middlings — Coarse Middlings — Bran . . 66

(i) Barley By-products : Malting of Barley— Kiln
Drying — Malt Coombs — Brewers' Grains —
Distillery Grains . . . 70

(/) Oat By-products : Oatmeal— Oat Husks— Oat

Dust ...... 72

(k} By-products from Maize : Maize Germ Meal —
Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed — Flaked
Maize — Maize Bran . . . • 73

(/) By-products from Rice : Rice Meal . . 75

(m) Miscellaneous By-products : Apple Pomace —

Spent Hops . . . . -75

(n) Condimental Foods : Fenugreek — Locust Beans
— Aniseed — Gentian — Coriander — Ginger —
Cane Sugar Molasses— Beet Sugar Molasses—
Makbar— Molastella— Soya Treacle Cake—
Molascuit — Molassine . . . .76

(<?) Fodder Crops . . . . 79

(p) Green or Forage Crops . . . .81

(g) Root Crops . . . . .81

Ash Constituents in Feeding Stuffs . . .82

XIII. VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF PLANTS . . 83

Climate — Variety — Manuring — Stage of Ripeness
when Harvested— Weather Conditions during
Harvesting.

XIV. PERMANENT GRASS AND FORAGE CROPS . . 88

Permanent Pasture — Timothy Meadows — Improv-
ing poor old Pasture — Forage or Soiling Crops.
XV. DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS . . . -95

Individuality of Animals — Ruminants and Non-
Ruminants — Stage of Maturity — Effect of Work.

xii CONTENTS

(5) COMPOUNDING RATIONS, VALUING FOODS,
PREPARING FOOD FOR STOCK.

CHAP. PAG!

XVI. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN .COMPOUNDING

RATIONS . . . . . . 101

Composition — Albuminoid Ratio — Home-grown
Foods the Basal Part of Ration — Laxativeness
— Palatability — Economy.

XVII. FOOD STANDARDS . . . . .no

The Approximate Method— The Danish Method—
The Scientific Method.

XVIII. VALUATION OF FOODS . . . .120

Food Unit System — Manurial Residue.

XIX. PREPARING FOOD FOR STOCK . . . 123

Haymaking — Silage — Chaffing — Pulping — Grind-
ing, Rolling, and Nutting — Softening Coarse
Foods — Steeping — Cooking or Steaming —
Warming — Condiments.

(6) FEEDING, ETC., OF FARM HORSES.

XX. FARM HORSES. . . . . .132

Brood Mares — The Foal — Young Horse — Work-
horses — Suitable Rations — Short v. Long
Feeding — Watering — Cost of Keeping for
Year — Score Card of Shire Horse.

(7) FEEDING, ETC., OF CATTLE.

XXI. FATTENING CALVES FOR VEAL . . .146

The Natural Way— Hand-feeding— The Calf Box
— Food — Art of Feeding — Conclusions.

XXII. CALF-REARING. . . . . .152

Hand-rearing — Calf Meals — Calf-rearing Experi-
ments— Cost of Rearing for a Year — Turning
out to Grass.

CONTENTS xiii

CHAP. PAGE

XXIII. DAIRY CATTLE . . . .163

Points of Typical Cow — Building up a Herd —
Milking Trials — Butter Tests — Feeding the
In-calf Cow.

XXIV. MILK SECRETION . . . . .172

Colostrum— Butter-fat— Circumstances affecting
Quantity and Quality of Milk— Effect of
Food.

XXV. RATIONS FOR DAIRY Cows . . . .191

Feeding Standards.

XXVI. THE ART OF MILKING . . . .194

XXVII. COST OF PRODUCING MILK, KEEPING DAIRY

Cows, ETC. . . . . .196

Cost of Keeping Dairy -Cows for a Year —
Returns from Milk Selling — Comparing
different Systems — Score Card for Dairy
Shorthorn Cows.

XXVIII. BEEF CATTLE 201

Type of Animal — Breed and Quality — Available
Breeds — How the Feeder secures his
Animals.

XXIX. FATTENING OF CATTLE . . . .208

Baby Beef Production — Fattening Cattle in

Summer on Grass — House Fattening of
Cattle — Systems of Housing.

XXX. LESSONS FROM FEEDING TRIALS, ETC. . .216

Feeding Fodder Crops — Root Crops — Con-
centrates.

XXXI. RATIONS FOR FATTENING CATTLE . . 226

Economy in Feeding — Relation of Food to
Increase — Cost of Producing Increase —
Weight of Cattle by Measurement — Score-
Carding Beef Cattle.

XXXII. LIVE WEIGHTS OF CATTLE OBTAINABLE BY

INTENSIVE FEEDING .... 232

xiv CONTENTS

(8) FEEDING, ETC., OF SHEEP.

CHAP. PAGE

XXXIII. FEEDING OF SHEEP . . . .241

Ram — Breeding Ewes — Early Lambs — Winter-
ing Lambs — Mutton Production — Feeding
Roots, Forage and Fodder Crops, and
Concentrated Foods — Data from Feeding
Trials.

XXXIV. CARCASS COMPETITIONS FOR SHEEP . . 260

(9) FEEDING, ETC., OF PIGS.

XXXV. FEEDING OF PIGS ....". 260

Brood Sow — Piglings — Stores.

XXXVI. FATTENING PIGS 267

Pork Production — Bacon Pigs — Breeding
Stores — Buying Stores.

XXXVII. FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH PIGS . . 272

Separated Milk and Whey— Separated Milk
and Meals — Whey and Meals — Mangels
and Meals — Cooked v. Raw Potatoes —
Winter v. Summer Fattening — Pig Meals
— Foods and Quality of Bacon — Soft
Bacon — Firm Bacon — Tainted Bacon —
Grading Carcasses — Whole Grain v. Meals.

XXXVIII. RATIONS FOR PIGS . . . .282

Meal Mixtures — Food and Increase — Curing
Bacon — Breed and Carcass Contests at
Smithfield.

(10) FEEDING SICK ANIMALS.

XXXIX. FEEDING SICK ANIMALS . . . .292

(a) Horses — Temperature — Pulse-beats — Res-
pirations— Ailments of Horses — Fevers —
Ailments due to Errors of Diet and Errors
of Management — Bony Diseases — Mashes
and Gruels ..... 292

EXPERIMENTS AND FEEDING TRIALS, ETC. xv

XXXIX. FEEDING SICK ANIMALS— Continued.

(b) Ruminants — General Preventions — Foods

deficient in Quality — Concentrates —
Sudden Changes of Diet — Common Ail-
ments— Milk Fever — Abortion — Impac-
tion of Rumen and of Omasum — Hoven —
Hoose — White Scour — Black Leg . . 300

(d) Pig Ailments — Rickets — Salt-Poisoning . 309

INDEX . . . . . . . .311

EXPERIMENTS AND FEEDING TRIALS
REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT.

Armstrong College -, Newcastle-on-Tyne — PAGES

(a) Offerton Hall — Feeding of Dairy Cows 187, 190, 194

(5) Cockle Park — Fattening of Bullocks . 210,217,220

Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture —

Fattening of Bullocks . . 216, 219, 222, 223, 226, 229

Fattening of Sheep .... 253,255

Milk Records .... 184, 187, 196

Department of Agriculture (Ireland} —

Calf-rearing Experiments . . . .158, 162

Feeding of Dairy Cows .... 185,199

Glasgow and West of Scotland Agricultural College —

Pig-feeding Experiments (Kilmarnock) . 272, 274, 277

Feeding of Dairy Cows . . . . .165

Bullock-feeding Experiments . . . .221

University of Leeds (Garforth Farm} —

Feeding of Dairy Cows . . . 187,189,196

Fattening of Bullocks .... 218,220

xvi EXPERIMENTS AND FEEDING TRIALS, ETC.

Royal Agricultural Society (England} — PAGES

Bullock-feeding Experiments . . . .219

Butter Ratios of Dairy Breeds of Cattle . . . 164

Midland Agricultural and Dairy College —

Manuring for Milk . . . . 180,189

Harper Adams Agricultural College —

Bullock-feeding Trials . . . . .220

Wye Agricultural College, Kent —

Feeding of Dairy Cows . . . . .186

University College of North Wales —

Bullock-feeding Experiments .... 224

University College, Aberystwyth —

Pig-feeding Experiments .... 276, 277
Bullock-feeding Experiments .... 224

Highland and Agricultural Society (Scotland) —

Milk Records ...... 182

Cumberland and Westmorland Farm School, Penrith —

Early Mutton Production ..... 244
Fattening of Sheep .... 251,255

Londoji Tramway Company —

Feeding of Horses ...... 140

Lancashire County Council —

Milk Records . . . . . .181

Wilts County Council—

Fattening of Pigs for Bacon . . 273, 275, 278, 281

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE. PAGE

I. A Herefordshire Cattle-yard at Mr John Powell's,

Town House, Madley I

II. Cotton Seeds ...... 49

III. A Herefordshire Hop-yard, Mr G. H. Bray's, Dor-

mington ...... 56

IV. i. Locust Beans ; la. Seeds of Locust Bean ; 2.

Earth- or Ground-nuts ; 2a. Seeds of Earth-nut. 57

V. Various Seeds ...... 64

VI. A. Haymaking — Cutting a fine crop of Seeds Hay

at Mr David Arnott's, Brechin, Forfarshire
J5. Scotch Haymaking — Making the Tramp Coil at
Mr David Young's, Mill Farm, Invergowrie, N.B.
VII. Seeding down Land to Pasture . . .89

VIII. A. Scotch Haymaking — Carting home the hay with
special cart at Mr John Spiers', Newton Farm,
near Glasgow .....
B. Continental Haymaking — Carting home hay
with bullock waggon at Lauchstadt, near Halle,
Germany ......

IX. English Haymaking — A common method in many

Midland and Southern Counties . . .105

X. A. Crop of Green Maize at the MacDonald Agri-,

cultural College, Quebec, Canada

B. American Silos— Specially constructed to store f
Maize Silage . . . . . J

xvii

xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE. PAGE

XL A. " Speed the Plough." It takes a pair of "good" "\

horses to plough in the Carse of Gowrie ! . |

B. Carting a good crop of Oats at Chesham '

Lodge, Great Eccleston, Garstang, Lanes

XII. A. "Lady Manifred" at the Edinburgh Show : a

fine type for fast work ....

B. Shoeing Competition at The Valletts, near [ 137

Hereford ; good shoeing is as important as

good feeding .....

XIII. A lovely Shire Mare — Sir Walpole Greenwell's

"Dunsmore Chessie": a Royal Show Cham-
pion ...... 144

XIV. A. Milking Devon Suckling Calf- First Prize at

the Royal Show, Shrewsbury, 1914 ; owned by
Messrs Loram Bros., Rosamondford, Exeter .
B. Group of well-bred Dairy Shorthorn Calves
being Hand-reared at Lord Lilford's Home
Farm, Northants ....

XV. Pedigree Shorthorn Cows which have done their
Calves well at Mr Percy Preece's, Pencoyd
Court, Ross, Herefordshire . . . 153

168

XVI. A. Dairy Cattle tethered close to Lund, Sweden
B. Pedigree Shorthorn Cow, " Baroness Stately,"
owned by Lord Lilford, Lilford Hall, Oundle,
Northants ....

XVII. Pedigree Dairy Shorthorn Cow, "Primrose Gift" .

XVIII. A. Typical Jersey Cow in the Cathedral Dairy
Company's Herd at Messrs Loram Bros.,
Rosamondford, near Exeter

B. Devonshire Clotted Cream — The Cathedral r
Dairy Company's Model Creamery at Rosa-
mondford

XIX. A. Hand Milking . . . ' \ 103

B. "Lister" Milking Machine . . J

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

xix

XX. The "Lister" Milking Machine, showing engine
which can be used for many other purposes .

XXI. "Royal Prince" — A promising young Hereford
Bull. The property of Sir John Cotterell,
Bart., Garnons, Hereford

XXII. A. West Highland Cattle at Mr Bone's, Monkton-

hill, Ayrshire, Scotland

I>. Mr Peter Coates' Champion Heifer at the
Royal Agricultural Show, Liverpool .

XXIII. Shorthorn-Dexter Steer — A very popular small

beef animal .....

XXIV. A. A typical Forfarshire Farm Steading, show-

ing covered cattle courts at Mr David
Arnott's, Pitforthie, Brechin, Forfarshire
B. A Northamptonshire Cattle - yard, with a
typical Blue-grey (Shorthorn-Galloway) in
store condition at Mr Brassey's Home Farm,
Apethorpe Hall, Northants

XXV. A. Aberdeen - Angus Shorthorn Cross Heifer, \

"Elita" (Shenstone Home Farm) . .1

B. Relative Prices of different cuts of Fat Cattle . J

XXVI. Hereford County Council Students judging Cattle
at Mr C. T. Pulley's, Lower Eaton, Hereford

XXVII. A. Ewes eating Roots off at Ashkirk, near ^

Hawick, N.B., in snowy weather
B. The Annual Sheep-shearing is an interesting |
time . . . . . . J

XXVIII. A. Border-Leicester, or possibly a Scotch Half- ^

bred Ewe with Lambs, at Mr Craw's, Chirn-

side, Berwickshire ....

B. Oxford or Oxford Cross Ewes in the Lambing-

pen at Mr John Clay's, Sunlaws, Roxburgh .

XXIX. The Feeding Hurdle System— Tegs feeding off
Turnips at Mr Farr's, Arkstone Court, King-
stone, Hereford

200

201

209

216

217

224

225

240

241

248

2 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

commence once again the same cycle of changes.
This round is continually going on, and is daily
revealing the wonderful power that exists in every
green plant that possesses life, of utilising such unlikely
materials as soil and air to build up food material
for the Animal Kingdom.

Relation of Plants to the Animal Kingdom. — All
living things can be divided into two groups, viz. : (i)
Animals and (2) Plants. As we study the lowest forms
in each kingdom, the differences become smaller and
smaller, until we arrive at a point close to the dividing
line between these two kingdoms, where it is difficult
to say whether a certain living thing belongs to the
Animal or the Vegetable Kingdom.

All these living things have something in common,
inasmuch as they are composed of small cells con-
taining a jelly-like substance called protoplasm or
"living matter." The latter term is very expressive,
because without this substance there cannot, so far as
we know at present, be any life. Living things gener-
ally have the power of reproduction; and in order to
maintain their bodies and increase in size, it is necessary
for them to receive nutriment in some form or other.

The higher forms of plants (e.g.) wheat, beans, etc.),
however, differ from the higher animals (e.g., horses,
cattle, sheep, etc.), in the following respects : —

Animals. Plants.

1. Cell walls composed of albu- Cell wall composed of cellulose.

minous substance.

2. Interior of cell filled with Interior of older cells not

protoplasm. entirely filled with proto-

plasm.

3. Have powers of locomotion. Generally fixed to the soil by

roots.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS 3

Animals. Plants.

4. Have no power of manu- Have power of manufacturing

facturing food material, but complex organic corn-

must apparently receive pounds or food material

their sustenance from food from simple substances

previously built up by the such as minerals, air, and

plant. water, in the presence of

sunlight, provided the plant
is green (i.e., possesses
chlorophyll).

5. Inhale oxygen gas from the Have the power of absorbing

air, and exhale carbon carbon dioxide gas and ex-

dioxide gas from the lungs haling oxygen gas during

chiefly (Respiration). sunlight, in addition to the

process of respiration.

The last two distinctions are highly important,
since they show us that the higher animals, at any
rate, are absolutely dependent on the existence of plants,
as the latter purify the air by absorbing large quantities
of carbon dioxide gas, and at the same time build up
food material for the Animal Kingdom. Without
plants, the air would tend to become foul, and the
Animal Kingdom either extinct, or its members would
have to find some other mode of existence.

In civilised countries the provision of a sufficient
supply of plants cannot be entrusted to nature alto-
gether; hence it is necessary where animals are kept,
either as the servants of man or to supply him with
food, that he should co-operate with nature in the
growing of plants, so as to provide an adequate, if not
an abundant supply of plant-food for the requirements
of domesticated animals.

It will therefore be convenient to describe more
in detail how the various food constituents are
manufactured by plants, before dealing with questions
of animal nutrition.

4 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

II. ESSENTIALS OP PLANT GROWTH.

The exact way in which plants obtained their
nourishment was up to the middle of last century quite
a mystery, and it will be very interesting to note the
chief stages in this discovery : —

Water. — In the days of alchemy, when only four
elements were recognised — viz., fire, air, earth, and
water — Van Helmont grew a willow tree in some soil
in a tub, and the only thing he added was water. The
tree grew fairly well, but as the soil was practically
the same weight at the finish, he concluded that water
was the source of food for plants.

Tilth in Soils. — Jethro Tull found, more especially
with the wheat crop, that frequent horse-hoeing had a
great effect on the yield of straw and grain ; hence he
concluded that if the soil were only made fine enough,
the small particles would be taken up by the root-
hairs.

Humus.— In 1800, Thaer of Halle held that the
humus in the soil was probably the source from which
plants derived their food ; but Liebig asked how
it was possible for humus to be the original food of
plants, seeing that it was itself largely decaying
vegetable matter.

Cartoon. — In 1804, De Saussure pointed out that when
a plant was burned in air, most of it disappeared, there-
fore he considered that the greater part of a plant must
be derived from the air and water. This proved later
on to be the case, for a Swiss scientist (Chas. Bonner)
noticed that when certain green leaves were immersed
in water, bubbles of gas sometimes appeared on the
leaves. Priestley found that these bubbles were oxygen
gas, and Ingenhaus that they only made their appear-

HISTORY OF MANURING 5

ance in sunlight ; while Jean Senebier discovered that
instead of these leaves taking in oxygen and breathing
out carbon dioxide gas, as animals always do
(respiration), they actually carried on during sunlight
the reverse process, viz. : that of absorbing carbon
dioxide gas and breathing out oxygen gas.

Minerals.1 — Digby found that saltpetre gave wonder-
ful results when applied to hemp plants, due, he thought,
to this substance fertilising the air. Later on, Liebig
propounded his great mineral theory, that the minerals
in the soil were essential in the growing of farm
crops.

In recent years this mineral theory has been
followed up. Plants were grown in water to which
was added most mineral substances found in the ash
of plants, and it was found that the plants grew and
matured. One by one these minerals were eliminated,
until it was ultimately discovered that for the successful
growth of plants it was necessary to supply in suitable
form nitrates, sulphates, and phosphates of potash,
lime, magnesia and iron, so far as the minerals are
concerned.

Further trials with farm crops showed that, in
ordinary farm practice, it was only necessary to supply
in suitable form, nitrogen, phosphates, potash, and
occasionally lime. Seeing that lime only needs to be
applied every four to eight years, manures supplying
nitrogen, phosphates, and potash are called "complete
manures," so far as the mineral requirements of the
plant go.

The above discoveries are all very important. Even
to-day it is still necessary to supply farm crops with water

1 The term " minerals " is taken to include the nitrogen which
the plant obtains from the soil in the'_form of salts (nitrates chiefly).

6 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

and minerals, to work the soil in order to admit air
and get a good tilth, as well as to keep a supply of
humus in the soil as reserve plant food, and as an
absorbent for water.

Absorption of Minerals. — The minerals in the soil
which are dissolved in the soil-water soak or diffuse
through the very delicate walls of the root-hairs (osmosis).
The solution then rises up the wood-vessels (xylem) in the
plant till it comes to the leaves, where it is continually
being lost by transpiration or vaporisation, with the
result that the minerals, which were dissolved in the
water, become gradually concentrated in the leaves.
A further supply of water containing dissolved minerals
is again drawn up into the leaves, and so the process
goes on. Generally speaking, the warmer the weather,
the more rapidly do the leaves transpire.

The power which plants possess of drawing water from the
roots up to the leaves is most likely due to a number of forces
acting simultaneously, viz. : —

(a) Root-pressure, or the force exerted on the liquids in the

plant by the absorbing action of the roots. The root
continues to absorb, with the result that this exerts a push
from behind on the liquid previously absorbed.

(b) The vacua formed in the wood-vessels of the stem of the

plant, due to the loss of water by transpiration ; as well as

All these forces are involved in the distribution of
minerals to those parts of the plant where they are
required.

FORMATION OF FOOD MATERIAL

III. MANUFACTURE OF FOOD MATERIAL BY
PLANTS.

Carbohydrates. — It has been pointed out above
that the green parts of plants, under certain
conditions, actually absorb carbon dioxide gas and
give off oxygen gas, hence this process is called
"carbon dioxide assimilation," or "carbon fixation."
This process is now known to be due to the green
part of the plant (chlorophyll) having the power, under
the influence of sunlight, of splitting up the carbon
dioxide gas contained in the air, retaining the carbon
and liberating the oxygen ; the carbon is at the same
time combined with water in the leaves to form carbo-
hydrates, generally starch (CgH^Og).1

The formation of carbohydrates only proceeds as
long as there is a suitable supply of minerals which
the plant can secure from the soil, more especially
potash and a little iron. These are absorbed and
carried up to the leaves in solution, as mentioned
above.

But how does the air get into the leaves ? To
understand this, one should know something of the
structure of a leaf, which in flat leaves has on the under-
side a very large number of pores (stomata) which admit
air, and at the same time allow gases and water-vapour
to escape into the atmosphere. These pores admit air
to the many cavities inside the leaf, and it is here that
the carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in the cell sap.

1 Professor Sachs found in a few cases that sugar, or even a
fat, may be the first detectable organic product.

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

During sunlight the green colouring matter combines
the carbon and the water together with the liberation of
oxygen, which passes out by diffusion through the pores
on the under-side of the leaves.

Upper layer of cells
(epidermis)

Palisade parenchyma,
containing chlorophyll
grains, which give green
colour to leaf.

Wood vessels which con-
duct water to the
leaves.

Bast cells which conduct
carbohydrates, etc. ,
from leaves.

Open spaces or cavities
into which air is
admitted and carbon
dioxide gas absorbed.

Lower epidermis.

Stomata or openings
which admit air to
open spaces in leaf.

Transverse section of small part of a leaf of a dicotyledonous plant, greatly
magnified, and rather diagrammatic.

The starch (C6H10O5) formed in the leaves is then
converted into sugar (C6H12O6) by a ferment in the
leaf, and in this form diffuses or travels to those parts
of the plant where growth is taking place, or to be
stored up for future use, as in seeds, tubers, roots,

FORMATION OF FOOD MATERIAL 9

fruits, etc. In cereal grains and tubers the sugar is
again changed back into starch after it has arrived at
its destination.

Pat or Oil. — Oil differs from fat in being liquid
at ordinary atmospheric temperature, while fat is
solid. They are both soluble in ether. These are
formed from the carbohydrates, and it appears that
a high temperature is necessary for the conversion of
carbohydrates into fat or oil, seeing that flax seed
(linseed) grown in hot countries (Russia) contains a
much higher percentage of oil than that grown in
colder climates (Ireland).

Fat and oil are made up of the same three elements
as carbohydrates, but are characterised by having a
very small proportion of oxygen in the molecule ; or,
to put it another way, fat is exceedingly rich in
carbon.

Amides. — The sugar formed in the leaves is carried
to all parts of the plant along vessels called the bast
(phloeum). It is on this journey that the sugar comes
in contact with the minerals, more especially the
nitrates, when the living matter in the plant causes
the elements of the sugar and the nitrates to combine,
forming, probably, first ammonia (NH3) and then an

/ IT \
amide NiY The amides, therefore, contain

nitrogen in addition to the three elements found in
carbohydrates and fats. They are soluble in the
cell sap, and are abundant in young, and especially
so in luxuriant herbage.

Albuminoids. — As plants mature, the amides are
gradually transformed into albuminoids (proteids).
These differ chemically from amides in containing

10 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

sulphur and sometimes phosphorus in addition to
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The
albuminoids are largely stored in the seeds and
fruits of plants.

Fibre. — This is often called woody fibre, on account
of its indigestible properties. As the plant grows it
requires more and more fibrous tissue to support its
increase in size and weight, and for this purpose the
plant utilises the carbohydrates (sugar). If the plant
is allowed to get dead ripe, as is sometimes the case
with cereals, the stem or straw consists almost entirely
of woody fibre and becomes very brittle.

Ash Constituents or Mineral Matter. — These are
taken up from the soil and later transferred to the
seeds and the body of the plant generally.

The more the plant uses these minerals in the
formation of foliage or seeds, the more freely will
the minerals be absorbed by the roots from the' soil.

IV. ESTIMATION OP NUTRIENT CONSTITUENTS
IN PLANTS.

The nutrient constituents manufactured by plants
are found to a greater or less extent, in most of the
plants or parts of plants (seeds, etc.) which are fed
to stock. Above we have noticed that albuminoids,
amides, fats, carbohydrates, fibre, and ash are formed
in plants, hence it is important to know how the
chemist discovers the amounts of each of the nutrients
contained in any given food-stuff, e.g., oats, peas,
beans, etc.

Before doing this, it may help the reader if the

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF FOODS

nutrients of foods are classified in the following
manner : —

Moisture.

FOOD

Dry Matter «

PROTEIN,

Nitrogenous Matter

or
Crude Albuminoids

Non-nitrogenous
Matter

[ALBUMINOIDS

J (Proteids).

^Amides.

TOIL.

CARBOHYDRATES.

Fibre.

Ash.

The above nutrients are estimated as follows : —

Moisture. — The finely ground food is heated in a
steam-oven till it ceases to lose weight ; the loss on
heating gives the amount of moisture in the food.

A rapid method of estimating the moisture content of
cereal grains, etc., has recently been devised by Brown
and Duvel of America. With their patent moisture tester
the result may be obtained in half an hour. This is done
by taking a certain weight of grain, placing it in a
distillation flask with mineral oil, and distilling the
water off. The steam driven off in this way, after being
condensed, is led into a flask, which is graduated in
such a way that the moisture content can be read off at
once. The necessary temperature for distillation varies
from 170° C. to 190° C, according to the particular seed
or grain that is being tested.

Nitrogenous Matter (Protein). — A small quantity
of the finely ground food is taken and heated with
strong sulphuric acid to convert the organic nitrogen
into ammonia. Caustic soda is then added to the
solution, when the ammonia is distilled off and collected

12 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

in acid of standard strength. The amount of acid
neutralised measures the ammonia which has been
driven off, and from this the amount of nitrogen
is calculated. Protein is found to contain on an average
1 6 per cent, of nitrogen, hence by multiplying the
nitrogen in food by 6J (-W0-)* the amount contained in
the food is obtained, and the percentage calculated.

The albuminoid part of the protein is precipitated
when copper hydrate is added to a solution of protein,
but the amides remain in solution. This precipitate
contains only the albuminoids, and the estimation
of the nitrogen is as above described. Hence if
the protein (nitrogenous matter) is ascertained in a
food, and the albuminoids also found in the same food,
the difference will give the amides.

Oil. — This includes that part of the food which is
soluble in ether, and on this account is more correctly
called " ether extract." A known weight of the finely
ground food is taken and treated with hot ether for
probably a couple of hours to dissolve the oil out.
The ether is then evaporated off, and the oil which is
left behind is afterwards weighed. In bulky fodders
this ether extract may include waxy matters, etc., in
addition to oil, which makes the fat credited to these
fodders less valuable for feeding purposes.

Fibre. — The food is boiled for half an hour in weak
acid and then for half an hour in weak alkali ; the part
which still remains undissolved is called " fibre."

Ash or Mineral Matter. — The part which remains
after the food has been burnt in the air till the residue
ceases to lose weight is called " ash."

Carbohydrates include sugar, mucilage, starch, etc.,
and are obtained by ascertaining the total percentage
of the above constituents and subtracting the aggregate

THE ANIMAL BODY 13

total percentage from 100. Hence they are obtained
by difference.

V. COMPOSITION OP THE ANIMAL BODY.

The body of farm animals may be regarded as
consisting of a bony skeleton, covered with an elaborate
system of muscles. In addition, fat may accumulate
between the individual fibres of these muscles and
round the muscles generally, with the result that, as
the animal fattens, the external covering of skin, with
its appendages of hair, wool, etc., varies from time to
time in size and shape.

Within this skeleton the vital organs are found,
viz. : heart and lungs in front of the diaphragm (i.e.
in the chest), and the stomach, liver, spleen, intestines,
kidneys, etc., behind the diaphragm (i.e. in the abdomen).
Each of these organs plays a very important part in
animal nutrition.

The vascular system distributes the nutrients which
have been absorbed into the blood, to every part of the
body where it is required, either for maintaining the
body temperature, repairing waste of tissue, supplying
energy, or producing increase. The digestible parts of
the food are thus utilised for the maintenance and
development of the body, while the indigestible or
unutilised part is removed from the system.

Briefly stated, the important " proximate " con-
stituents of a fat animal from the butcher's point of
view are : lean meat, fat, bone, and the skin. The
proportion, arrangement, and quality of each of these
constituents in the animal body, are problems which
the breeder and purchaser of store stock have to keep
constantly in mind.

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

In order to understand the practical side of feeding,
it will be instructive and helpful to know something of
the chemical composition of the animal body. Here one
cannot do better than refer to the valuable work done
by Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamsted Research Station
(Hertfordshire, England), where the bodies of cattle,
sheep, and pigs at different ages and varying stages of
fatness were carefully analysed, and the following im-
portant data obtained.

The figures for the entire body of these farm
animals are based on the fasted live weight, after the
contents found in the stomach and intestines (varying
from 3 to 9 per cent, of the weight of the animal) have
been deducted. The latter precaution is very necessary
before any comparisons can be made between the entire
body and the carcass.

Composition of Entire Body and Dressed Carcass
of Farm Animals.

Kind

Entire Body.

Dressed Carcass.

Condition

a n*

"3 ^

(H _£2

,-t

CD -*J

Animal.

1- 1

.s|

« a

per

cent.

Fat calf .

65-1

157

15-3

3'9

62-3

16-6

4-5

Half-fat ox

56-0

18.1

20-8

54-0

17-8

22-6

Fat ox

48.4

15-4

32-0 4'2

45-6

15-0

31-8

4-6

Fat lamb .

52-2

13-5

31-1 3-2

48-6

10-9

36-9

3-6

Store sheep

61-0

15-8

19-9 3-3

57-3

14-5

23-8

4-4

Fat sheep

46-.

13-0

37-9

3-o

39-7

45-4

3-5

Extra fat sheep

48-3

33-o

9-1

2-8

Store pig .

58.1

14-5

24-6

2-8

5S-3

14-0

28-1

2-6

Fat pig .

43-o

11.4

43-9

i-7

38-6

10-5

49-5

1.4

COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 15

With these results before us, the following observa-
tions can be made : —

Water. — Generally speaking, water is the largest
constituent of the entire body of farm animals, and in
store or half-fat animals will often exceed half the
weight of the body. In the case of the extra fat sheep
and fat pig, the proportion of water in the body is
actually less than that of the fat.

The bodies of young animals contain a larger pro-
portion of water than older ones. Again, by comparing
store and fat animals, it will be seen that, as fattening
proceeds, the proportion of water in the body diminishes.

The proportion of water in the dressed carcass is
from 2 to 6 per cent, less than that in the entire body.

Protein. — This consists in the " entire body " of
lean meat (muscle), ligaments, tendons, skin, hair, hoofs,
and horns (if present). Dried blood is also fairly rich
in protein.

The proportion of protein tends to increase from
youth to maturity (cf. fat calf and half-fat ox, or fat
lamb and store sheep). As the animal fattens, the pro-
portion of protein decreases. The largest proportion of
protein is found in the body of the ox, while that in the
pig is the smallest, although the proportion in the sheep
is not much greater than that in the pig.

In the carcass the proportion of protein is about
the same with the ox and the pig as in the entire body,
but is i to 2\ per cent, less in the sheep.

Fat. — Fat forms a considerable proportion of the
entire body. In fat animals this varies from one-third
to almost one-half of the weight of the body. The
proportion of fat is greatest in the pig and smallest in
the ox (cf. fat sheep and fat pig).

The bodies of young animals contain a smaller pro-

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

portion of fat than older ones (cf. fat calf and fat ox, or
fat lamb and fat sheep). As fattening proceeds, the
proportion of fat increases very considerably; in fact,
may amount to double that of the store animal (sheep).

In the " carcass " the proportion of fat varies from
1-3 to 7 per cent, in excess of that found in the entire
body. The chief fats present in the carcass are stearin,
palmatin, and olein; the last named being liquid at
ordinary atmospheric temperature.

The Composition of Increase in Live Weight
during fattening was calculated by Lawes and Gilbert
for farm animals, with the following results : —

Kind of Animal.

Water.

Protein.

Fat.

Mineral
Matter.

per cent.

Ox ...

Sheep .
Pig ...

24-6
22-0
28-6

7-7
7-2
7-8

66-2
68-8
63-1

2-0

The chief points to notice are that two-thirds of the
increase in live weight during fattening is fat, while
only a fourteenth consists of lean meat (protein).

Mineral Matter (Ash). — This is concentrated to a
large extent in the bony skeleton, although it is fairly
abundant in muscle, blood, etc.

In the entire animal the proportion rarely exceeds
5 per cent, of the weight of the body, and is sometimes
much less. The body of the ox is richest in minerals,
and that of the pig poorest. The proportion diminishes
as fattening proceeds.

The carcass is slightly richer in mineral matter than
the entire body.

It will now be instructive to study in greater detail

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF ANIMALS

the chemical composition of the mineral matter. It was
with this object that Lawes and Gilbert determined
the actual chemical constituents in the animal body,
the results of which are given in the following-
table :—

Table showing Ash Constituents and Nitrogen in 1000 Ibs. of
Farm Animals (Fatted Live Weight], Wool, and Milk.

Nitrogen
(N).

Phosphoric
Acid
(P208).

Potash
(K20).

Lime
(CaO).

Magnesia
(MfeO).

Ibs.

Fat calf .
Half-fat ox .
Fat ox ...

24-64

27-45
23-26

15-35
18-39
I5-5I

2-o6
2-05
1-76

16-46
21- II
17-92

0-79
0-85
0-6 1

Fat lamb .
Store sheep
Fat sheep .

19.71

2377
19.76

11-26
n-88
10-40

1-66
1-74
1-48

I2-8I
13-21

1 1..84

0-52
0-56
0-48

Store pig .
Fat pig ...

22-08
I7-65

10-66
6-54

1-96
1-38

10-79
6-36

o-53
0-32

Wool (unwashed)

54-oo

0*70

56-20

1. 80

0.40

Milk ....

5-76

2-00

1-70

O«2O

The above table shows that the half- fat ox per 1000
Ibs. fasted live weight has removed from its food, and
indirectly from the soil, an amount of minerals which
would be supplied by 166 Ibs. pure nitrate of soda, 133
Ibs. superphosphate of lime (30 per cent, soluble),
nearly 4 Ibs. pure sulphate of potash, 26^ Ibs. ground
lime (80 per cent, pure), and nearly 2 IDS. carbonate
of magnesia. These figures show that where young
growing animals are living largely on pasture land,

18 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

there is a considerable drain on the store of nitrogen,
phosphates, and lime in the soil to supply the require-
ments of the animal body. Nitrogen maybe collected
from the air to a fairly considerable extent by the
roots of clovers and other leguminous plants in the
pasture, but this does not apply to minerals such as
phosphates and lime. This explains why grass-land
which has been grazed continuously with young cattle
is apt to become destitute of these two substances ; also
why basic slag, which supplies both phosphates and
lime, in many cases gives wonderful results when
applied to such pastures. It is generally wise to include
some kainit in the manurial mixture used on pastures,
in case there might also be a shortage of potash.

In the same way, every store sheep of 100 Ibs. live
weight (which means a good big sheep) in building up
its body has removed an amount of minerals from
its food, and indirectly from the soil, equal to
14^ Ibs. nitrate of soda, 8J Ibs. superphosphate of lime
(30 per cent, soluble phosphate), J Ib. pure sulphate of
potash, and nearly if Ibs. of ground lime (80 per cent,
pure). If the sheep had been reared entirely on grass,
the pasture would have lost the above amounts of
minerals and nitrogen.

The ox requires a larger amount of minerals in
proportion to its weight for its body requirements than
either the sheep or the pig ; and the pig requires less
in proportion to its size than the sheep.

The large amounts of nitrogen and potash in
unwashed wool are both very striking. The latter
constituent, no doubt, finds its way into the fleece in the
perspiration, just in the same way as it does into the
coat of a horse. There must sometimes be fully half a
pound of potash in a sheep's fleece,

MINERALS REMOVED BY ANIMALS 19

With regard to milk sold off the farm, each cow
giving on an average 600 gallons per year will take an
amount of minerals from the food, and indirectly from
the soil, equal to 210 Ibs. pure nitrate of soda, 87 Ibs.
superphosphate of lime (30 per cent, soluble phosphate),
19 Ibs. pure sulphate of potash, and 14 Ibs. ground lime.
For a thousand-gallon cow the respective amounts of
minerals required would be supplied by 350 Ibs. nitrate
of soda, 143 Ibs. superphosphate of lime, 32 Ibs. sulphate
of potash, and 22 Ibs. ground lime. The annual drain
to the farm by dairy cows is therefore considerable.

When purchased foods are given to farm animals, the
loss of minerals to the farm is diminished theoretically
by the amount contained in the purchased foods.

VI. BODY REQUIREMENTS PROM POOD.

There is a continual waste going on in the animal
body, and it will be convenient to deal with these
losses or requirements separately.

Body Temperature. — The normal temperature of
farm animals is approximately 100° F. In this country
the air temperature seldom comes anywhere near body
temperature, and is often far below, with the result that
the body is constantly losing heat, chiefly from the
lungs and the external surface of the body. Experi-
ments have shown that the loss bears a much closer
relation to the exposed surface of the body than to the
weight of the animal.

The rate of loss varies directly with the difference
between the air temperature and body temperature, i.e.,
the greater this difference is, the more rapidly will heat
be lost from the body. The rate of loss may also be
increased by work, inasmuch as some of the energy in
the body is transformed into heat by increased oxida-

20 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

tion of the nutrients in the body. The heat escapes
both through the lungs and the pores of the skin.

Mechanical Work or Energy. — The animal body
has many functions to perform, both internal and
external, in order to keep up its vitality. Internally,
the process of respiration must go on, and this throws a
lot of work on the diaphragm and other muscles. The
heart has to be continually pumping the blood round
the body. As the food passes along the alimentary track
it must be masticated, digested, and largely expelled
from the system ; while externally the body requires to
be held in position, and, during walking or running has
to be carried or forced through space, which involves a
considerable amount of strain on the muscles. If, how-
ever, the animal is loaded, then the strain on the
muscles is increased, and the animal respires more
freely. All these things are a drain on the energy
which is stored in the system.

Maintenance. — Ordinary wear-and-tear is constantly
going on in the body, due to the strain thrown on the
system in meeting the various demands, such as the
production of heat and the performance of internal
work. The body tissues are continually being used up,
and in order to keep the animal in the same condition
(*>., neither increasing nor decreasing in weight), it is
necessary to give it a sufficient amount of nutrient
material to maintain its body temperature, to supply
energy, and repair the waste of tissue.

Production. — This refers more to the growth in
size of animals, production of flesh (beef, mutton, or
bacon), as well as offspring and milk. It really infers
that something extra is required over ordinary mainten-
ance. In fattening animals, it is only the food consumed
in excess of the requirements for maintenance (heat,

BODY REQUIREMENTS FROM FOOD 21

energy, and ordinary waste of tissue) which is available
for this purpose.

The various constituents of the food which are
capable of supplying heat, energy, or body tissue to
an animal are called " nutrients," and all the processes
through which the nutrients go in the animal body in
order to fulfil their respective functions are called by
the word " metabolism," such processes would therefore
be called " metabolic processes."

Before attempting to describe how to meet the
above body requirements, it will be necessary to give
the process of digestion and the various food-stuffs that
are available for feeding purposes.

VII. THE PROCESS OP DIGESTION.

Food material is taken in at the mouth of the animal
and gradually passes along the alimentary or food canal,
where it is attacked at different stages by various
digestive juices as well as bacteria. In this way part
of the food is dissolved or digested, and is therefore
capable of soaking through the thin cellular walls of
the intestines into the circulation, which carries this
digested food to various parts of the body where the
nutritive material is required.

The part of the food which resists the digestive
juices travels along the alimentary track, and is finally
expelled as solid excrement.

Digestion, therefore, refers to those processes
through which the food passes in the animal body, by
which it is dissolved and thus rendered capable of being
absorbed into the blood. This solvent action is brought
about by ferments or substances capable of producing
fermentation.

22 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

These ferments are conveniently divided into two
classes, viz., organised and unorganised ; and as they
play such an important part in agriculture, a general
account of their action will be given.

Organised Ferments are produced by the activity
of bacteria, which usually act as " oxidisers " when they
attack carbohydrate substances. Common examples
may be recalled, such as the souring of milk by the lactic
acid bacteria, which change the milk sugar into lactic
acid. Various alcoholic drinks derive their alcohol from
sugar, which on fermentation with yeast yields alcohol.
In the alimentary canal certain bacteria are found which
attack and break down the fibrous part of food as it
passes through the animal body, with the result that
some of the fibre is digested.

The action of these organised ferments, which are
dependent on the existence of bacteria for their forma-
tion, can only proceed to ferment food materials as long
as there is a supply of air (aerobic), and moisture, as well
as a suitable temperature. If air were precluded, or the
food desiccated (dried) or refrigerated, this would prevent
the multiplication of bacteria, and the production of
these organised ferments would come to a standstill.

Certain organised ferments attack nitrogenous
substances, with the production of nauseous gases. If
such fermentation takes place in the animal body, as by
pathogenic germs, it would cause considerable disturb-
ance in the system.

The "Unorganised" Ferments, or enzymes, are
chemical substances which, unlike the organised
ferments, are not dependent on the presence of
bacteria. A remarkable feature of them is that they
appear to have almost an unlimited power of converting
nutrient substances into a form in which they are avail-

FERMENTS 23

able to plants or animals, without themselves being used
up or suffering any permanent change (catalytic action).
They are regarded as albuminous substances : which are
formed from the protoplasm, and exhibit the above-
mentioned " catalytic " form of action. Poisons and
a too high temperature render them inactive. These
ferments may be precipitated from solutions, and
desiccated, but when redissolved, they continue to do
their work ; in fact, behave in a general way like
chemical substances.

Enzymes may be classed according to their charac-
teristic action on starch, sugar, protein, fat, cellulose,
etc., and have generally a " hydrolising " effect ; z>., they
add the elements of water to the composition of the
substance acted upon, e.g., starch (C6H10O5) becomes con-
verted into sugar (C6H12O6).

Enzymes are present in germinating seeds, and
perform the important function of converting the
starch contained in the seed into sugar, thus rendering
it available for the development of the young plant.
The same thing applies to tubers, bulbs, and vegetative
parts generally where food material is stored.

In the animal body, ferments (enzymes) are secreted
by various glands along the alimentary canal, and are
largely responsible for changing food material into a
form in which it can be absorbed into the circulation,
as will be seen below.

The process of digestion is much the same in
ruminants (e.g. cow) and non-ruminants (e.g. horse), after
the food has arrived at the so-called fourth "stomach"
in the case of the former, and the ordinary stomach in
the case of the latter ; hence the two will be dealt with
separately up to this point, and collectively after,
1 Strasburger.

24 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

VIII. MASTICATION, RUMINATION, AND
DIGESTION.

Mastication. — In the case of the horse (non-
ruminant), the food is taken into the mouth, where it
is chewed or masticated. This has the dual effect of
grinding the food down into a fine state of division so
that the digestive juices may more effectively act on
the food, as well as mixing it with the " alkaline" saliva
which is secreted in the mouth. The saliva contains
a ferment called " ptyalin," which acts on the starchy
part of the food, converting it into sugar (maltose).

Apparently saliva is secreted in inverse ratio to the
amount of water in the food. This means that, with
succulent foods like grass, less saliva is secreted than
would be the case with drier foods, such as hay and
meals. Professor Pawlow (Russia) found with dogs
that the quantity of saliva varied much more with the
composition and quality of the food, than the appetite of
the dog. No doubt the same thing applies to the horse.

The food is then swallowed and passes on into the
stomach, but the saliva continues to act on the
starchy part of the food until the latter comes in
contact with the gastric juice of the stomach, which,
on account of its acidity, destroys the alkaline nature
of the saliva and thus prevents its action.

With ruminants the process is more complicated, due
to the very large size and peculiar shape of the stomach.

Stomach of a Ruminant. — This is made up of four
compartments, .namely : —

(1) The paunch (rumen).

(2) The honeycomb (reticulum).

(3) The manyplies (omasum).

(4) The rennet stomach (abomasum).

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS 25

In the young animal the paunch is comparatively small,
but as the animal develops and begins to consume bulky
foods the paunch enlarges considerably, until it becomes
approximately ten times as big as the other three
compartments put together.

The reticulum has a honeycomb appearance on the
inside, hence the name honeycomb. It is comparatively
small in size, and acts partly as a reservoir for water.

The inner surface of the omasum consists of longi-
tudinal folds, which lie very close together in many
folds or manyplies. These folds are for the purpose
of dividing the food and pressing it between the
folds before it is passed on to the fourth stomach
(abomasum). The latter is called the rennet stomach,
because the rennet used in cheesemaking is prepared
by salting the stomachs of calves.

The capacity of a stomach of a full-grown ox may
be 40 or 50 gallons.

The peculiar construction of the stomach as well
as the habit of swallowing food unmasticated is the
cause, to a large extent, of ruminants " chewing their
cud," or ruminating.

Rumination. — The food is given a hurried chew and
swallowed ; it then passes chiefly into the paunch. Here
it remains for a time, and becomes softened with the
saliva which has been swallowed with the food, and
in fact with any liquid that happens to find its way into
this compartment. After the food has fermented a
short time, it is brought back into the mouth (regurgi-
tated), chewed a second time, and then swallowed
again. The finer parts of the food pass along a
groove into the third stomach, where the food is
rubbed together by the manyplies before being
passed on to the fourth or true digestive stomach.

26 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Here the action on the food is the same as with the
horse.

This temporary sojourn of the food into the paunch
gives ruminants a much greater power of digesting
fibrous foods such as hay and straw than non-ruminants.
The fermentation of the food in the paunch, in addition
to softening it, decomposes part of the food, with the
production of certain organic acids such as butyric and
lactic plus carbon dioxide gas, marsh gas, and to some
extent hydrogen gas. Although there are special
muscles to return the food to the mouth, they are
assisted very much by these gases as they escape by
the mouth into the air.

The writer has noticed tegs in winter give the food
from forty to eighty chews before swallowing it a
second time. Bullocks in summer often chew the
food seventy to eighty times before swallowing it the
second time.

The Stomach. — In the stomach the food comes in
contact with the gastric juice, which contains two
ferments called " pepsin " and " rennin " respectively,
and in addition a certain amount of acid (hydrochloric
and lactic). These acids give the characteristic acid
reaction to gastric juice. It appears that "pepsin" is
secreted in the first part of the stomach, and does
not act on the albuminoids except in acid solutions.
In acid solutions, however, the pepsin attacks the
albuminoids, with the result that some of them are
converted into such bodies as albumoses, peptones,
and possibly amino-acids. The amino-acids at least
are capable of being absorbed into the system.
" Rennin " curdles milk, and is found abundantly
in the stomach of calves.

The forward and backward action of the muscular

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS 27

walls of the stomach is peculiar. In the first place it
mixes the food thoroughly with the gastric juice, then
as it forces the food forward some of it is squeezed
through the round (sphincter) muscle at the far end of
the stomach into the small intestines. The coarser parts
are left behind till they are softened down and rendered
capable of being squeezed through the round muscle
into the intestines. Some absorption of soluble
material takes place in the stomach, but most of it is
carried on into the intestines.

Gastric juice of carnivorae (dogs, etc.) is more acid
in character than that of herbivorae (horses, cows, etc.),
which enables the former to swallow bones without
harm. Professor Pawlow found that food placed
directly in the stomach had little effect in stimulating
secretion, but sight, smell, and taste stimulated the flow
greatly even before any food had passed into the
stomach. The greater eagerness the dog showed for
the food, or the more appetising it was to the dog, the
more abundant was the flow of gastric juice, and the
richer it was in both acid and pepsin. It was also
found that in character and proportion the digestive
juices adapt themselves to the nature of the food.

Small Intestines. — The contents of the stomach
arrive at the small intestines in a semi-liquid state and
with an acid reaction. These nutrients are in various
stages of digestibility. Here it is attacked by the bile
and pancreatic juice, which change the food from an
acid to an alkaline reaction.

The " bile," in the case of herbivorae, is a clear,
greenish-coloured liquid which is secreted by the liver,
and acts on the fats partly by emulsifying them, and
partly by splitting them up into fatty acids and
glycerine. These fatty acids then combine with the

28 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

alkalies present in the bile to form soap. Further,
bile stimulates the wave (peristaltic) action of the walls of
the intestines, which is so important in carrying the food
through the intestines. It also acts as an antiseptic.

The " pancreatic juice " is secreted by the pancreas,
and enters the small intestines at a point close to that
where the bile enters. It contains three ferments,
and these act respectively on the albuminoids, fat and
carbohydrates (starch), which have not been rendered
soluble and diffusible by the previous ferments,
These are as follows : — " Trypsin," which acts on albu-
minoids, forming peptones, etc. ; " steapsin," which acts
on fats, splitting up the fat into fatty acids and
glycerine ; " amylopsin," which acts on starch, changing
it into sugar (glucose).

Intestinal Juices have a very similar action to
the pancreatic juice. The chief ferments present are
" erepsin " and " invertase." The former acts on the
albuminoids which have escaped the action of the
pancreatic juice, converting them into peptones, and
later, according to recent research, into amino-acids ;
while the latter converts the malt sugar (maltose),
milk sugar (lactose), etc., into grape sugar (glucose).

IX. BACTERIAL DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION.

Bacteria. — It has been mentioned above that
bacteria have an important action on the food in
the paunch of ruminants. This process continues in
the large intestines. The large bowels of the horse
are very capacious, and here the undigested food,
mixed with some of the digestive juices, remains for
a time. At the same time bacterial activity causes

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS 29

fermentation, which decomposes to some extent the
albuminoids, carbohydrates, as well as the fibrous
part of the food. In this way a horse is enabled
to deal with fibrous foods, such as hay and straw,
in a fairly effective manner, although not quite so
efficiently as ruminants.

Bacteria are comparatively rare in the stomach
and small intestines, as the gastric juice and bile kill
most of them off. The gases produced by fermentation
in the large intestine are doubtless absorbed into the
circulation and exhaled from the lungs.

Kellner points out that some bacteria have the
power of forming albuminoids from amides, probably
with the assistance of nitrogen-free substances (carbo-
hydrates), and that such albuminoids can be utilised
by the animal for the same purposes as the
albuminoids in food. Probably this change only takes
place in the case of ruminants, as bacterial activity is
much greater in their case than with either horses or
pigs.

Absorption of Digested Pood Material. — The
greater part of the digested food enters the circulation
from the small intestines, which have on part of
their inner surface a velvety appearance, caused
by innumerable hair-like projections called "villi."
These have the power of absorbing the digested part
of the food.

The absorbed nutrients find their way into the
lymphatic vessels, the branches of which keep collect-
ing up until they form ultimately two large ducts,
which enter the blood by a vein in the neck. The
lymphatics carry the nutrient liquid only in one direc-
tion, and act more as tributaries, pouring the absorbed
nutrients into the blood at the neck vein.

30 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The albuminoids, after being broken down by the
digestive juices into amino-acids and other products, are
absorbed by the villi, and then built up again into the
complex albuminoids of the animal body.

According to Professor Henry, the fats previous to
absorption are split up into fatty acids and glycerine.
These acids combine with the alkalies of the bile to
form soap. It appears that immediately after the
glycerine and soap have been absorbed by the small
intestines, they are reconverted into animal fats. The
fats form a milky fluid with the lymph, called " chyle,"
which is carried into the circulation by the lymphatics.

The carbohydrates are absorbed chiefly in the form
of glucose or similar sugars. They enter the blood and
go by way of the portal vein into the liver. The sugar is
then mostly removed from the blood, and stored up
temporarily as glycogen, which resembles starch in com-
position, hence it has been designated animal starch.

Glycogen is gradually changed back to glucose as
and when required. A similar power of storing up
sugar is possessed by the muscles of the body.

The minerals in the food are absorbed chiefly in the
small intestines, while water is absorbed in that part of
the alimentary canal which lies between the stomach
and the large intestine.

Destiny of Absorbed Nutrients. — The absorbed
nutrients are carried along in the blood stream, where
they may be utilised to maintain the body temperature,
supply energy for digestion or work, repair waste of
tissue, and, so far as the food is in excess of these
requirements, it may be stored up as fat or flesh in the
animal body. Before these various functions can be
understood it will be necessary to refer to the circulation
of the blood.

ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS 31

Circulation of the Blood. — The blood is kept in
circulation by the continuous pumping of the heart.
In this way the blood is forced along the arteries on its
outward journey, and after the blood has passed through
the various organs of the body, it returns to the heart
along the veins. Whenever the blood passes through
an organ in the body, e.g., liver, kidneys, etc., the
blood-vessel divides up into a large number of very fine
blood-vessels (capillaries), which gradually come together
into one large vessel as the blood leaves that organ.

The object of this subdivision of the blood-vessel
into very small vessels as it passes through an organ is,
first of all, to get the walls of the blood-vessels so small
in the organ that nutrient liquids may pass into the
blood (small intestines, and to some extent, stomach),
or that impurities may be taken out (lungs, kidneys,
etc.). Further, the blood may be utilised for the
manufacture of digestive juices (liver, pancreas, etc.) ;
or, in fact, some of the nutrients in it may be stored up
temporarily, as in the case of glycogen in the liver.

We can now explain the functions of the various
nutrients in the animal body.

X. FUNCTIONS OP POOD NUTRIENTS IN
ANIMAL BODY.

It is usual to regard the protein (crude
albuminoids), fats, and carbohydrates as the chief
nutrients in foods, but it will be necessary to refer
to the fibre and mineral matter in addition, as they
play a not unimportant part in animal nutrition.
Further, the part played by water in dissolving the
nutrient material, thus enabling it to be absorbed into

32 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

the circulation and carried to every part of the body,
cannot be overlooked.

Carbohydrates. — The carbohydrates of the food are
apparently absorbed by the small intestines into the
blood in the form of sugar (dextrose). It is then
carried to the liver, and the excess stored up as animal
starch (glycogen) or converted into fat. The liver acts
as a reserve for carbohydrate material.

The carbohydrates may also be utilised for the
production of energy and heat through the carbon
and hydrogen being oxidised in the blood. Modern
research appears to indicate that carbohydrates may
be of much greater importance as tissue-builders than
has generally been supposed.

To understand how " heat " is produced in the body
by the carbohydrates, one must remember that carbo-
hydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, the last two elements always occurring in the
proportion of two atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen.
The digestible carbohydrates, after rinding their way
into the blood, come in contact with the oxygen which
is loosely held by the red blood corpuscles. This oxygen
then combines with (oxidises) the carbon and hydrogen
to form carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and water (H2O).

" Whenever chemical action takes place, heat is
produced"; hence the very fact that the oxygen in
the blood combines chemically with the carbohydrates,
means that heat will be generated in the body and the
body temperature thus maintained.

Work increases respiration, more air is taken into
the lungs and more oxygen into the blood ; hence more
carbohydrates are oxidised, more heat is generated, and
the animal gets very hot and perspires freely.

With regard to "energy," it has been found that

FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS 33

animals doing work require only a small amount of
albuminoids, but a comparatively large amount of
carbohydrates. It is therefore obvious that carbo-
hydrates have the power of supplying energy to the
animal body to meet the waste of energy that is going
on during work.

Fat may also be formed from carbohydrates when
they are fed in excess of the requirements for heat
and energy. Kellner points out that if animals are
fed with a ration poor in albuminoids and fat, but rich
in carbohydrates, the animals increase in body fat
at a rate which could not possibly have come from
the albuminoids and fat in the food, therefore some of
the fat must have been formed from the carbohydrates.

The fat of milk may be derived from the carbo-
hydrates, for Professor Jordan (Geneva Experimental
Station, New York) had a cow fed for ninety-five days
on hay with maize and ground oats, wrfich had
previously been deprived of most of the fat by naphtha.
The cow gained in weight, and yielded 63 Ibs. of fat in
the milk. The food only contained 1 1 J Ibs. fat, of which
5-7 Ibs. was digested ; Hence most of the remaining 57-3
Ibs. fat must have been derived from the carbohydrates.

Pat. — The fat in the food supplies heat, energy, and
fat to the animal body. Although it is composed of the
same three elements, it has a greater value as a heat
producer than carbohydrates, owing to its containing
a very small proportion of oxygen in its composition
(molecule), and a comparatively large amount of carbon.
This means that much more oxygen will be required
to oxidise the carbon and hydrogen, i.e., more chemical
action will take place, and as a result more heat be
produced from a given weight of fat, than would be the
case from an equal weight of carbohydrates.

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

For complete oxidation of two molecules of carbo-
hydrate (starch) as compared with two molecules of fat
(stearin) the formulae given below will show how much
oxygen would be required : —

(Carbohydrates) —

2C6H1006

I2O2

Starch

plus

Oxygen

(Fat)-

2C57H110O

6 +

i6302

Stearin

plus

Oxygen

I2CO2 +

gives Carbon dioxide and

ii4CO2

gives

Carbon dioxide and
gas

ioH2O

Water

noH2O

Water

It is now necessary to take into account that the
fat molecule is over nine times as heavy as the starch
molecule, and the simplest way will be to calculate
what weight of oxygen is required in each case to
combine* with (oxidise) I Ib. of carbohydrate and fat
respectively. Taking the atomic weights: carbon 12,
hydrogen I, and oxygen 16, we find that : —

(a) 324 Ibs. starch require 384 Ibs. oxygen for complete oxidation,
i ID. 55 11 • IDS. 11 11 11

i Ib.

324
1-185

(b) 1780 Ibs. stearin require 5216 Ibs. oxygen for complete

[oxidation.

i Ib.

2-930 Ibs.

Hence, by dividing (a) into (b) we find that stearin
(fat) is 2-472 times as valuable for heat production
as starch (carbohydrate). This value, however, varies
with every different kind of fat, and it is usual to

FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS 35

take the average figure that fat is 2-3 times as valuable
as carbohydrates for this purpose.

Fat, like carbohydrates, supplies "energy," or the
power of doing muscular work to the animal ; either
internal, in digesting foods, maintaining the circulation
of blood, etc. ; or external, for pulling loads, etc. This
can be proved by limiting the albuminoids and carbo-
hydrates in the ration and increasing the fat ; the
animal is then able to do more work after the addition
of fat has been made.

The fat of food may also be stored as "fat" in the
animal body, although the composition of the body
fat as well as the fat in milk becomes slightly changed
in composition and properties from the fat of food.
This is not so difficult to understand, seeing the fat is
broken down in the body during digestion,1 and
immediately after absorption built up again into animal
fats.

Albuminoids. — The albuminoids are the only food
constituents that have the power of forming lean meat
in the animal body, hence they are called "flesh-
formers." They may also form the ligaments, tendons,

1 A few years ago fat was considered to be absorbed into the
blood without change, but this theory could not explain why
it was that the fats of the animal body and in milk differed
considerably in properties and composition from the fats of the
food. The modern and more rational view is that the fats are
split up by the digestive juices into fatty acids and glycerine.
These fatty acids unite with the alkaline salts in the bile to form
soluble soaps. The glycerine and soluble soaps are then absorbed
into the circulation in the small intestines, and shortly after are
reunited into animal fats, provided they are in excess of the
requirements in the body for heat and force. If not, the carbon
is oxidised with the oxygen in the blood to carbon dioxide (CO2),
and becomes a source of heat and energy.

36 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

hair, horns, wool, feathers — in fact all those parts of
the body containing nitrogen. Further, they are
absolutely necessary to sustain life.

None of the other nutrient constituents, except
under certain circumstances the amides, have the
power of supplying nitrogenous tissue to the body.

The albuminoids, like the fat, are temporarily split
up by ferments (enzymes) during digestion and absorp-
tion into simpler bodies — albumoses, peptones, and
finally, amino-acids — and these amino-acids are again
built up into animal albuminoids after or during
absorption into the blood. This accounts for the
different character of albuminoids in the animal body
as compared with those in the food from which they
are derived.

When the albuminoids in food are insufficient to meet
the constant waste of nitrogenous tissue in the animal
body, the deficiency must be supplied from the flesh
which the animal has previously stored up at the time
it was receiving a liberal amount of albuminoids ; the
animal then begins to lose flesh. Young animals
require a more liberal allowance of albuminoids than
older ones, inasmuch as they have to support the
constant growth in the size of the body in addition
to supplying the ordinary waste of tissue.

Albuminoids may also supply heat and energy
when the carbohydrates and fat are not present in
sufficient quantities. In this case, the carbon and
hydrogen are oxidised in the same way as carbo-
hydrates and fat. The nitrogen, however, is not
oxidised in the body, but is excreted in the urine.
The albuminoids may also be converted into fat ; hence
we have seen that the albuminoids have the unique
property of forming nitrogenous tissue (flesh) and

FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS 37

fat, in addition to supplying heat and energy to the
animal bodyc

In practice, however, it is important to economise
the more expensive albuminoids as much as possible,
by supplying a sufficient quantity of the cheaper carbo-
hydrates in the ration for heat, energy, and fat
production, thus confining the albuminoids to the
repair of waste nitrogenous tissue and the production
of lean meat, etc. Kellner states that carbohydrates
are quite as effective in preventing protein waste as
fat.

Amides. — The amides are soluble in water, and
are mostly digestible. A good example of an amide
is asparagine, which is made up of the elements
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Although
asparagine contains nitrogen, it has no power of adding
to the nitrogenous tissue when fed to non-ruminants.
With ruminants, it does appear in certain cases to
have the power of economising the albuminoids. This
peculiar power, according to Kellner, is no doubt brought
about by the action of bacteria in the alimentary canal,
and may be accounted for in two ways : by the bacteria
either —

1. Converting in some way or other the amides

into albuminoids ; or

2. Attacking by preference the amides in the body,

and thus destroying a smaller quantity of the
albuminoids of food.

It would therefore appear that ruminants receiving
a ration poor in albuminoids but rich in amides may
utilise the amides either directly or indirectly to form
flesh.

Further, it appears that amides have no power of
forming fat, although when oxidised in the system

38 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

they have the power of giving heat and energy to
the animal body, the nitrogen leaving the body in the
urine in the form of urea.

Crude Fibre. — This is sometimes called woody fibre,
and is generally present to a large extent in what are
called " bulky fodders." Ruminants have considerable
powers of digesting fibre, due partly to the length of
time the food remains in the system, as well as to the
presence and activity of considerable numbers of
bacteria in the alimentary canal, which attack the
fibre, thus rendering a portion of it available for
nutrition purposes.

During the bacterial digestion of fibre, part of it
escapes from the body in the form of gases, such as
carbon dioxide gas (CO2), marsh gas (CH4), and
hydrogen (H2). These leave the body chiefly in the
breath. Further, it appears that the energy derived
from the digestible fibre is chiefly available in the form
of heat, and has little value for production purposes.

The fibre in bulky foods requires a large amount
of energy for mastication and digestion, and it is not
difficult to understand that the previous grinding of
fibrous foods by machinery into a fine state of division
diminishes considerably the amount of energy required
by the animal for mastication, and at the same time
increases its digestibility, inasmuch as it is more easily
attacked by the digestive agents. Warington points
out that the undigested part of the fibre is richer in
carbon than the digested.

It may therefore be taken that the chief function of
the digested fibre, apart from its bulk, is to produce
heat. Non-ruminants have much smaller powers of
digesting fibrous foods, but the horse, on account of the
large capacity of its intestines, digests it fairly well.

FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS 39

The pig has only a very limited power of dealing with
fibrous foods.

Mineral Matter or Ash. — Lime, magnesia, and
phosphoric acid are important constituents of the
bony skeleton of animals ; hence if the food given
to animals is poor in bone - forming minerals, the
supply is so small that the animal, in addition to
being undersized, has bones which are diseased in
some way or other (e.g., rickets in pigs). Pregnant
females also require more lime, etc., to supply this
constituent for the bones of the foetus. According to
Prof. Henry, the animal skeleton may act as a reserve
storehouse for mineral matter, and, when the supply
in food is below requirements, dole out lime, phos-
phates, etc., in order that the various functions of the
body may be maintained, e.g., dairy cows may at times
give more lime in the milk than is supplied in the
food.

Potash is found chiefly in the muscular tissues of
the body, while soda is an important constituent of
blood and the digestive juices. In the stomach sodium
chloride (common salt) is partly converted into hydro-
chloric acid, which renders the gastric juice acid.
Common salt (NaCl) has the power of dissolving some
of the albuminoids ; it also improves the palatability
of some foods, and increases the flow of digestive juices.

According to Kellner, the chlorine as well as the
soda of common salt is required for dairy cows, because,
if omitted altogether, the cows gradually become weaker
and may ultimately collapse, but if chloride of sodium
or potash is added to the food, they quickly recover.

Water. — Water is indispensable in the animal body,
for without water there can be no life, seeing that it
is an essential constituent of the living matter (proto-

40 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

plasm). All common foods contain a certain amount of
water, which assists the animal in chewing the food.
When the food is too dry, it is necessary for the animal
to drink water occasionally to facilitate absorption of
the digested food into the blood, and the ejection of
waste substances from the body.

Water is a wonderful regulator of the body tempera-
ture, because, when the body is abnormally hot, a large
amount of this heat is absorbed in converting the water
into water-vapour. The water-vapour then leaves the
body by the lungs in the process of respiration, as well
as by perspiration through the pores of the skin. On
the other hand, an animal drinking water at too low a
temperature may chill the body so severely, as to cause
colic, etc. This would apply more especially to work
horses.

Bulky fodders and foods rich in albuminoids cause
animals to drink considerable quantities of water, and
as the water required depends on so many factors, it is
wise to let the animal determine the quantity required
for itself. It is generally safe to allow farm animals to
drink water at atmospheric temperature.

Kellner found that for each 100 Ibs. of water drunk
and supplied in the food to a stall-fed ox, 46-3 per cent,
appeared in the solid excrement, 29-2 per cent, in the
urine, and 24-5 per cent, in the breath and perspiration.

XI. COMPENSATING NUTRIENT MATERIAL, ETC.

Nature has supplied the animal body with a wonder-
ful power of meeting emergencies. It often happens that
an animal is not receiving sufficient food for immediate
requirements. Well, how is this difficulty overcome by
the animal body? We have already seen that when
animals are fed in excess of requirements for keeping

COMPENSATING NUTRIENT MATERIAL 41

up the body heat and meeting the demand for energy
and tissue waste, that the excess is utilised for the
formation of fat and flesh. This excess nutrient
material must be carried in a more or less liquid state
to the point where it is actually laid down as fat or
flesh ; therefore, at any given time, it is reasonable to
expect that there will be present in the animal body a
certain, if not considerable amount of this " floating "
nutrient material.

During starvation it would appear that the various
functions of the body are maintained, and in order to
do this the animal draws on the reserve which it has
stored up, first on the "floating" nutrient material,
then on the fat, and finally on the flesh.

Kellner has shown that when an animal is deprived
of albuminoids in the ration, that nitrogen continues to
appear in the urine. The nitrogen excretion diminishes
rapidly at first after nitrogen is withheld, due, it is
believed, to the loss falling on the floating nitrogenous
nutrient material in the first instance. It appears that
energy may be stored up in the muscles, even minerals
may be placed in reserve in the bones, and both drawn
on when necessity arises.

These wonderful compensating forces, or this power
of storing reserves, explains why it is that a milking
cow will continue for a time to yield average milk, even
when the ration is insufficient ; but if carried beyond a
certain point, the cow will lose flesh, or, in farming
language, " milk herself thin."

Respiration. — The blood is continually circulating
through the lungs, and as it enters is of a dark colour,
due to the carbon dioxide gas it contains. On its
passage through the lungs by way of the very fine
blood-vessels (capillaries), it comes in contact with the

42 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

air that has been drawn into the air cavities of the lungs.
Here the blood takes up the oxygen in the air, and
liberates the carbon dioxide gas due to the red
colouring matter (haemoglobin) having a much stronger
affinity for oxygen than carbon dioxide gas. The blood
then changes to a bright scarlet colour and the carbon
dioxide gas escapes from the lungs in the breath, along
with considerable quantities of water-vapour. In this
way the lungs are continually ridding the blood of this
injurious product of oxidation. At the same time the
blood is being charged with oxygen, which it carries
round the body, giving it up wherever it is required to
oxidise the food for the production of heat or work, etc.

Excretion. — The chief impurities of the blood
which are not removed by the lungs are urea, certain
salts, and water. Urea is formed from the decomposi-
tion of nitrogenous matter in the blood. The carbon
and hydrogen alone are oxidised to carbon dioxide and
water respectively. The nitrogen, however, forms urea,
and is removed by the kidneys as well as through the
pores of the skin (perspiration).

When the urine is collected, and the amount of
nitrogen in it determined, one can tell by difference
from the total food digested, the amount of albuminoids
which have been stored in the body. The difference
between the compositions of food and solid excrement
gives the amount digested by the animal.

The various salts contained in the food which are
not required by the body are got rid of in the
urine, and to some extent in the perspiration. Soda
and potash are common bases in these salts, because
they are fairly abundant in the food given to farm
animals, and produce salts which are easily dissolved.

The undigested food is expelled from the body in

RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION 43

the form of solid excrement. Seeing that the food
canal of ruminants is from twenty to thirty times the
length of the body, while in horses and pigs it is from
ten to fifteen times, the food naturally remains in the
alimentary canal some time before the undigested part
is finally expelled. With pigs and horses this period
may be about two days, while with ruminants four to
six days may be required.

XII. POODS AND FEEDING STUFFS.

Feeding stuffs may be divided into those which are
comparatively rich in one or more of the three most
valued nutrients — viz., albuminoids,1 fats, and carbo-
hydrates (concentrates), and those feeding stuffs which
are comparatively poor in the above - mentioned
nutrients (bulky foods).

The former are represented by the various oil-
cakes, pulse grains (peas and beans), cereal grains
(wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, and rice), including
by-products from flour mills, breweries, distilleries,
etc. ; while the latter includes grass, clover hay, seeds
and meadow hay, straw from cereals, roots, etc. Bulky
fodders (hay and straw) are very rich in fibre, while
root crops are generally low in this constituent.

The concentrates may be subdivided into groups
according to their richness in one or more of the three
most valued nutrients : e.g., oil-cakes, peas, beans, soya
beans, etc., are all rich in albuminoids ; flax seed,
cotton seed, soya beans, and rape seed are rich in oil ;
while wheat, barley, oats, maize, and rice are exceed-

1 As the protein in concentrates consists largely of albu-
minoids, the common term "albuminoids" will be employed in
dealing with concentrates.

44 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

ingly rich in carbohydrates. Very often we find that
foods rich in oil are also rich in albuminoids ; e.g.,
linseed and decorticated cotton cakes. The undecorti-
cated cotton cakes, brewers' grains, etc., although
fairly rich in albuminoids and oil, possess a consider-
able percentage of fibre, which decreases their value
to some extent for fattening purposes. In this mode
of subdivision, interesting points are revealed with
regard to the seeds from different natural orders of
plants ; e.g., leguminous seeds (pulse grains) are rich
in albuminoids and poor in oil. Cereal grains are
exceedingly rich in carbohydrates. (See Table, pp.

45-470

With these general remarks we will now proceed to

examine the various foods and feeding stuffs in greater
detail.

(a) Concentrates Rich in Oil.

Plax Seed, or Linseed. — This is the seed of the
flax plant (Linum usitatissimuni), and is grown chiefly
in Canada, South America (River Plate), Russia, and
India (Calcutta) for its seed, which is extremely rich
in oil (37 per cent.) and fairly rich in albuminoids
(20 per cent.). The composition, however, varies
according to the climate in which it is produced ; e.g.,
warmer climates like India appear to produce seeds
with a higher percentage of oil, while in colder climates
(America) the oil content is somewhat less. Russian
seed is apt to contain rape or other weed seeds. In
Ireland the plant has been grown largely for its fibre,
but it is the seed which most concerns us at present.

Approximately half a million tons of flax seed are
imported into this country annually, primarily for the
extraction of linseed oil, which is used so largely for

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 45

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THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

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COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 47

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48 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

the manufacture of linoleum, and paint, for drenching
cattle, or for feeding with chaff and meals to horses as a
laxative. It has also the effect of enabling horses, etc.,
to cast their coats in late winter or spring much more
readily.

Linseed meal is produced by grinding flax seed,
and is a favourite food for young calves, which are
having a part of their milk ration substituted by rneals.
It has a composition rather similar to that of milk,
is very digestible, and is probably the safest milk
substitute that can be used for young calves. The
seeds should be ground in such a way as to bruise the
husk with the minimum amount of crushing of the
kernel, otherwise oil will be lost in the grinding.
The bushel weight of good flax seed is 52 to 56 Ibs.

Oil Extraction. — The seed is first of all screened
to remove impurities, and in many cases is led past
powerful magnets, which remove any pieces of metal
that may have found their way into the seed. It is
then ground to a meal with steel rollers, and conveyed
to a receptacle or kettle, where it is heated to about
1 60° F. with steam. This makes the oil thinner and
facilitates its extraction. The heated meal is admitted
into a movable, bottomless iron box, which is slided
forward and backward over a shallow rectangular mould,
beneath which is placed a long piece of sacking which is
a little wider than the cake. One forward and backward
sweep of the box fills the mould with meal. A low
pressure is applied to bring the meal together into the
cake form, so that, after the ends of this narrow piece of
sacking have been turned over the cake, it is completely
surrounded and can be transferred to the oil press, where
there are, as a rule, four tiers of cakes to each mould, so
as to admit of one tier being filled and the other three

PLATE II.

Bombay.

Egyptian.

Salonica.

[Photos ly Author.

Cotton Seed?.

Brazilian
(delinted).

[To face p. 4f>.

OIL EXTRACTION FROM SEEDS 49

being left in the press at varying stages of oil
expression.

For cakes with 8 per cent, of oil, it takes approxi-
mately five minutes to fill a tier of cakes ready for
pressing, then five minutes under low pressure and
thirty minutes under high pressure (2 tons per square
inch) will complete the oil extraction. The cakes
are now taken out, their rough edges trimmed by
machinery, and after being cooled are ready for sale.

When 12 per cent, oil is left in the cakes, the time
under low pressure is extended and that under high
pressure reduced. If, however, 16 per cent, oil is
required in the cake, the oil may be extracted entirely
under low pressure. A slightly lower temperature
may also be employed in the kettle for the meal before
expression.

The cakes vary slightly in weight, but will run about
190 cakes to the ton ; i.e., 12 Ibs. each.

Cotton Seed. — This is grown chiefly in the tropics
—viz., Egypt, India (Bombay), United States, South
America (Brazil), Salonica, etc. — and consists of the
seed of the cotton plant (Gossypium). The seeds have a
considerable amount of cotton attached, which is doubt-
less intended by nature to aid their distribution by wind.
It is usual for the cotton-grower, after collecting the
seed, to send it to the ginning factory, where the cotton
lint is removed. It is then found that the seed has a
hard, brownish husk, with a whitish or greyish kernel
which is exceedingly rich in oil. The percentage,
however, varies according to the country of origin.
Egyptian seed may contain about 24 per cent, oil,
while the oil in American seed may be about 20 per
cent, Bombay less still (17 per cent).

The seeds also differ in external appearance ; e.g.,

50 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Brazilian is probably the largest seed and can be obtained
practically free from cotton lint. Egyptian seed is com-
paratively large, with very little cotton lint adhering to
the narrow end of the seed. Salonica seed is somewhat
smaller, but some of the seeds are covered with cotton
lint, which prevents one seeing the colour of the husk.
Bombay seed is a comparatively small seed, and the
seeds are completely covered with cotton lint, with the
result that they look like small balls of cotton.

In America, and to some extent in this country,
solvents such as naphtha, benzene, etc., are used to
extract the oil instead of pressure, with the result that
a larger amount of oil is extracted. In some cases
both solvents and pressure may be used. The
residual cake contains a smaller percentage of oil, but
a correspondingly higher percentage of albuminoids.
Generally speaking, the poorer a cake is in oil, the
harder it will be.

The extracted oil is of a pale yellowish colour, and
possesses a pleasant flavour. At present it is largely
used for the manufacture of soap, lubricating oils, and
in one or two cases as a cream substitute for calves.
It differs from linseed oil in being a "non-drying" oil.
During this process of oil extraction the leathery husk
may be screened out, when the residue cake obtained
is decorticated or " dehusked " cotton cake, as in the
case of American seed. The Bombay and often the
Egyptian seed, are not usually decorticated, hence the
resulting cake residue is called undecorticated.

The process of oil extraction is very similar to that
employed for linseed, but the meal in the kettle requires
to be heated to a higher temperature, to facilitate the
extraction of oil. Further, the hulls of cotton seeds
are very hard and indigestible, consequently they require

OIL SEEDS 51

a second grinding before the hulls are sufficiently fine
for feeding purposes. This second grinding is done by
a pair of very heavy millstones, placed in a vertical
position so as to concentrate the weight on a small part
of the rim. These stones then revolve round a central
pivot in a circular trough. The advantage of stones
revolving horizontally and vertically at the same time
is, that they grind as well as roll or crush the seed.

The cakes are slightly heavier than linseed cakes,
and run about 160 to the ton with Egyptian cakes
containing 5 per cent, oil, and 150 in Bombay cakes
containing 4^ per cent. oil.

Soya Beans. — The leguminous plant called soya
bean (Glycine hispida) is largely grown in Manchuria,
Northern China, Japan, America, etc., and produces
seeds in pods about the size of an ordinary pea. The
colour of these seeds is generally yellow. They con-
tain 16 to 20 per cent, of oil, and on this account
are not largely fed to stock without having a part of
the oil extracted. If the pure seed is fed to stock, it
should be mixed with foods which are rich in carbo-
hydrates, such as maize or other cereal grains, and
only up to the extent of one quarter of the concentrates
given.

These seeds are also rich in albuminoids (36 per
cent.). The nutrients are very digestible.

Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa). — This is a small
whitish seed, very rich in oil (33 per cent.), moderately
rich in albuminoids (16 per cent), poor in carbohydrates
(ij per cent), and very low in fibre (2 per cent). The
nutrients are also very digestible. The residue after
the oil has been expressed should only be fed to cattle,
and even then in small quantities at a time.

Ground-nut, or Pea-nut (Arachis hypogoeci). — The

52 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

ground-nut is grown largely in North America. It is
also called earth-nut and monkey-nut. The plant is
remarkable for the fact that after fertilisation of the
flower, the flower-stalk pushes the fruit into the ground,
where it ripens. The fruit consists of a sausage-shaped,
straw-coloured husk or pod about an inch long, with
two seeds or pea-nuts enclosed. These pea-nuts are
rich in oil (41 per cent), and on this account are utilised
as a source of oil.

Sunflower Seed (Helianthus annuus}. — The sun-
flower seed is largely imported from Russia, and
contains approximately 30 per cent, oil ; hence the oil
is often extracted. The seed is sometimes fed to
poultry.

Rape Seed. — This is the seed from rape, and comes
chiefly from Russia, Germany, Austria Hungary, and
East India, where it is grown on account of its richness
in oil.

The seed contains 35 to 45 per cent. oil. It is apt
to contain mustard seed, which may cause harm to live
stock if present in quantity. It may also contain
considerable quantities of sand.

The expressed oil is used very largely for lubricating
machinery, and the residual cake is rape cake.

Kapok Seeds. — These seeds are obtained from
a tropical plant called Eriodendron anfractuosum,
which is related to the cotton plant. It is largely
grown in Java, Sumatra, and the Philippine Islands, and
to a small extent in India, Ceylon, and Central
America.

The seeds contain 24 to 26 per cent, oil, 22 to 24
per cent, albuminoids, and 20 to 22 per cent, fibre.
They are peculiarly-shaped seeds, dark in colour, and
approximately the size of vetches. The narrow end of

OIL SEEDS 53

the seed is formed by a piece of husk being apparently
superimposed on the husk which is adjacent to the
kernel, forming a kind of blister, and this part of the
husk can be easily removed without exposing the kernel.
The husk is thick, horny, and indigestible.

Palm-nut Kernels are also very rich in oil (49 per
cent), moderately rich in carbohydrates (27 per cent),
with only a low percentage of albuminoids (8 per cent).
The nutrients are very digestible. The residue is called
palm-nut cake.

Cocoa-nut Kernels. — Very similar to palm-nut ;
residue forms cocoa-nut cake.

(b) Oil-cakes — Low in Fibre.

The oil-cakes are residues which are obtained chiefly
from the various oil seeds after they have been ground
to a meal, cooked, and subjected to pressure or treat-
ment by solvents in order to extract the major part of
the oil. The name of the cake is derived from the
particular kind of seed used in its manufacture ; e.g.,
linseed cake, cotton-seed cake, cocoa-nut cake, etc.

These oil-cakes are, from a feeding point of view,
still very rich in oil. In fact, speaking generally, those
cakes with more than 12 per cent, of oil are apt to be too
laxative for cattle if 4 Ibs. per head per day is
exceeded. Oil-cakes are at the same time very rich in
albuminoids, and exceedingly valuable for blending
with bulky fodders (hay and straw), which are generally
poor in both oil and albuminoids, the effect being to
raise the character of the whole diet.

The quality generally depends on the country of
origin of the seed, its purity, and the manner in which
the oil has been extracted. Good oil-cakes should be

THE STOCKFEEDER 5 COMPANION

made from sound seed that has been well screened to

: e ~ : e ir. y = ir. ~ T .-. e : i -: • 5 ?-.\-.- : e i : . e i i : if :. e :
cent, pure, and should not contain more than 2 per
:er.t rir : At the 5 irr.t t.rr.e tr.e :i-:tr : ~. : _. : :t free
from impurities that are injurious to stock. Further, it
is most important *fa*t the ra)p»^ 5§>n^|]d be free from
otherwise digestive troubles may arise
they are fed to stock.
The manure made from animals fed on oil-cakes is

"—*•"'" — - - — -— -- 77I"""~~ i~~Z. " * 71 — T 77" ^ 77. '_! ^ " i. ~1""5* * • — — - c

consequently in ascertaining the full value of
cakes, credit must be given for the
These cakes are ground down

recueitec zy tne pur

-"^Ll^nH .177. S*^^"— C-^- *7 » ,

(yellow meal), etc.

practice cakes may often be obtained giving a higher
or a lower analysis, The words " about * and w approxi-
mate" are not wiitleu with cveiy analysis, as it is quite
this is understood by the reader.

are greyish brown in colour. The
three chief kinds DB the ziirket ire

The Zlrrhi." :i-:t- :i:". :". it ihtLir.ei
95 to 98 per cent, pure, and with 8 to 16 per cent
of oil Generally speaking, cakes rich in oil are
fairly soft in lejOuie, while those low in oil are

;c~c^ri.::ve".y hi.r- Three
be:—

^ Oil, i p-ir ccr.i : alb-niir.cids. li oer
(f) . 12 , , 26

.16

I OIL-CAKES 55

" American " cakes are poor in oil (less than 8 per
cent), and inclined to be hard. They are somewhat
richer in albuminoids than home-made cakes.
The " Russian " cakes are often rich in oil, and
may contain 12 percenter more. At the same time

Jthey are liable to contain weed seeds and other im-
purities.
Linseed cakes are also fairly rich in carbohydrates
(28 per cent), and generally low in fibre (8 per cent).
When the cake is ground into a meal it is called " ground
linseed cake."

It is probably the most digestible and most valuble
of the oil-cakes for feeding purposes, seeing it can
be fed to very young calves and lambs without
danger.

For fattening cattle it stands unrivalled in giving
the desired "bloom" or "finish" and touch. It gives
a slightly softer fat, which in cattle and sheep is an
advantage ; with pigs, however, this is a disadvantage.

When fed to dairy cattle it should only form a
small proportion of the concentrated foods, otherwise
the butter is soft and it very soon becomes rancid.

The laxative effect of linseed cake makes it especially
valuable for blending with foods of the oppositive
tendency. It is probably the most expensive concen-
trate per "food unit" (see also p. 120).

A good sample of linseed cake should possess the
following characters : —

(a) Nice fresh greyish brown colour; free from
mouldiness externally or any musty smell

(£) When crushed between the teeth, it should be
free from grittiness or any bitter flavour.

56 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

should be examined to see if the " husks " or
" hulls " of any foreign seeds are visible, e.g.,
polygonum, corncockle, or spurrey.
(d) When ground linseed cake is made into a gruel
with I gallon boiling water to 2 Ibs. meal,
it should swell up into a thick jelly. If oil
has been extracted with solvents, the meal may
not swell up into a jelly at all.

Decorticated Cotton Cake is bright yellow in colour.
It is usually made from American cotton seed, and
has the hulls removed before the oil is extracted from
the kernel; hence the cake has only traces of "hulls"
present, and is called " decorticated " (dehusked) cotton
cake. The removal of the black hulls gives the cake
the nice yellow colour of the kernel.

This cake is exceedingly rich in albuminoids (41 per
cent). The oil may vary from 7 to 14 per cent., but
8 per cent, is the most usual. It is moderately rich
in carbohydrates (26 per cent.) and low in fibre (8
per cent.).

Occasionally hard lumps or " knots " are found in
the cakes, especially those low in oil, due to the meal
collecting into balls while it is being steamed in the
kettle ; the subsequent pressure makes them into small
hard balls or " knots." Such cakes should be avoided.
When the cake is ground into a meal, the so-called
" yellow meal " is obtained.

This cake is far too rich in albuminoids to be fed
alone, and should generally be blended with other
concentrates which are poor in oil and albuminoids, but
exceptionally rich in carbohydrates such as maize,
barley meal, etc. It can be used for fattening bullocks
up to 4 Ibs. per head per day, as part of the concentrate

PLATE III.

mam

PLATE IV.

i. Locust Beans (p. 76).
I A. Seeds of Locust Bean.

[Photo by Author.

2. Earth- or Ground-nuts.
2 A. Seeds of Earth-nut.

[Between pp. 56, 57.

OIL-CAKES 57

ration, or for dairy cows, seeing it improves the firm-
ness and keeping qualities of the butter, although the
butter may be slightly pale in colour.

It should be fed very carefully, if at all, to young
cattle or pigs, as it may form into balls in the stomach
and cause harm.

The manure resulting from the feeding of this cake
is very valuable (see p. 124).

When purchasing decorticated cotton cakes, one
should generally avoid cakes with only 5 to 6 per cent,
oil (usual 8 to 10 per cent), as well as those which contain
large amounts of fibre, say 16 to 20 per cent, (usual, 8
per cent.).

Ground-nut or Earth-nut Cakes are rather coarse
in texture and greyish brown in colour, coming about
halfway between the colour of Egyptian cotton cake
and that of linseed cake. The cake has a pleasant
taste, and stock like it.

The whole nut (pod and seeds) may be ground
up and made into cakes, when one gets "undecorti-
cated ground-nut cake," but the cake used in this
country is usually made from the seeds or nuts after
the pod has been removed, and is called " decorticated
ground-nut cake."

The " decorticated " cake is very rich in albuminoids,
as the following analysis shows : — Albuminoids, 46 per
cent. ; oil, 10 per cent. ; carbohydrates, 23 per cent. ;
fibre, 5 per cent. The composition is very similar
to that of decorticated cotton cake, but slightly more
digestible, and may be used in the same way and in
the same proportions.

Soya Bean Cake. — This cake is greyish coloured, with
a taste very much like pea meal, and is exceptionally
rich in albuminoids (43 per cent). At the same time

58 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

it contains 6 per cent, of oil, 28 per cent, of carbo-
hydrates, and 4 per cent, fibre.

It is very palatable and digestible, and stock like it.
The cake is so rich in albuminoids that it is scarcely
suitable or wise to feed it as the only concentrate, and
is much better mixed with foods very rich in carbo-
hydrates, e.g., cereal grains. It is used in lamb foods,
for dairy cows and fattening bullocks, and gives a good
quality of flesh. There is no bad effect on dairy produce
when it is fed to milking cows. It may be fed with other
concentrates to the extent of 4 Ibs. per head per day
to dairy cows or fattening cattle.

Para Rubber Seed Cake. — Para rubber seeds are
now available in considerable quantity, and are
being manufactured into cakes for feeding purposes.
These cakes are light brown in colour and very friable,
no doubt due to their richness in oil. Its composition,
according to Auld, is as follows: — Albuminoids, 29-84 per
cent.; oil, 20-11 per cent; carbohydrates, 33-08 per
cent. ; fibre, 3- 1 5 per cent.

Its digestibility was determined by Auld at Wye
College with sheep, when all the nutrients showed over
90 per cent, digestibility : — Albuminoids, 90-1 per cent.;
carbohydrates, 95-3 percent.; oil, 97-2 percent.; and fibre
apparently all digested ; hence this cake has a very
high digestibility.

Maize Germ Cake. — Has a light grey colour, with
the flavour of maize. The germ is removed from maize
by the roller-mill process in the same way as is
done at flour-mills. The germ being rich in oil and
other nutrients, is prized as a food for stock. For
convenience it is pressed into cakes.

The cakes, which are very digestible, contain :
albuminoids, 21 per cent.; oil, 9 per cent; carbo-
hydrates, 44 per cent ; fibre, 9 per cent.

OIL-CAKES 59

This is an excellent food for dairy cows, and may form
a half to two-thirds of the concentrated part of ration.

Sesame Cake. — Manufactured from seeds of the
sesame plant. It contains 40 per cent, albuminoids, 1 2 per
cent, oil, 20 per cent, carbohydrates, and 7 per cent, fibre.
The albuminoids and oil are largely digestible, but only
about half the carbohydrates and one-third of the fibre.

Cocoa-nut Cake. — Has a uniform brown colour with
the cocoa-nut smell.

The composition shows : albuminoids, 22 per cent. ;
oil, 10 per cent. ; carbohydrates, 36 per cent. ; and fibre,
1 5 per cent. These cakes do not keep very well as the
oil soon becomes rancid, producing acidity.

It is rather high in fibre, but the fibre appears to
be fairly digestible and blends well with pulse and cereal
grains.

The cake is very suitable for butter and milk
production, and can be used to replace roots, like palm-
kernal cake (see below).

Coprah Cake. — This is practically the same thing
as the cocoa-nut cake above, but is made from the
dried kernels of the cocoa-nut, called, in commerce,
" coprah." The coprah is chiefly exported from the
islands of South Pacific to this country, primarily for
the oil it contains.

Palm-kernel or Palm-nut Cake. — Is a light grey
colour with small dark specks in it, due to the palm
kernel having a brown and fibrous outer part while the
remaining part is white. When the nuts are ground
up and pressed, it gives the cake a speckled appearance.
It has a similar smell to that of cocoa-nut.

60 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The cakes contain 17 per cent, albuminoids, 10 per
cent, oil, 36 per cent, carbohydrates, and 22 per cent.
fibre.

These cakes do not keep very well, as the oil is apt to
go rancid. When fresh, they are a splendid food for all
classes of stock, and fairly digestible. The cake has a
laxative effect, and on this account is a useful substitute
for roots when they are scarce. Dairy cows like it, and
it gives a firm and good flavoured butter, but should
not constitute more than half the ration (4 Ibs.)

Bean or pea meal goes well with it, and this com-
bination is very suitable for pig-feeding, seeing that it
gives a firm bacon. Being high in fibre, concentrates
blended with it should be low in this constituent, and
not too rich in oil.

Rape Cakes. — Generally dark brown in colour, made
up in thick, flat, circular cakes. They are often yellow-
ish on the outer surface, due to the presence of mustard
seed which has found its way into the rape seed ; such
cakes have a biting taste. In fact, the cakes generally
are not attractive to stock.

The composition is good : albuminoids, 32 per
cent. ; oil, 10 per cent. ; carbohydrates, 29 per cent. ;
fibre, 1 1 per cent.

These cakes are apt to contain considerable
quantities of sand, and do not keep too well. .

When fed to dairy cattle they are supposed to give
a hard butter, but may give it a turnipy flavour.
Probably their greatest use is for including in com-
pound cakes, as the undesirable flavour can be overcome
by spices, etc.

Undecorticated Cotton Cakes vary from dull brown
in colour (Bombay) to a yellowish colour (Egyptian).
These include the hulls as well as the kernels of the

OIL-CAKES 61

cotton seeds, hence the name. The hulls are black,
difficult to digest, and can be readily seen in the cake
with the naked eye, hence the cake has a coarser
appearance altogether than the undecorticated cotton
cake. The black hulls have an astringent action, which
may be an advantage when these cakes are fed along
with immature roots, etc., which tend to scour animals.

The cakes also vary in appearance, according to the
amount of cotton lint that is left on the seed after
ginning, and a few years ago feeders generally were
afraid to give cakes containing a large amount of this
cotton lint to their stock. Experience has now shown
that these fears need not be entertained so long as
the cakes are fed with ordinary caution.

The " Egyptian cotton cake " contains very little
cotton lint, and is yellowish in colour, with the dark
brown husks interspersed throughout the cake. It
contains 5 to 6 per cent, oil, 22 per cent, albuminoids,
34 per cent, carbohydrates, while the percentage of
fibre is as high as 20 per cent. It is a most useful
concentrate for fattening cattle, especially in the earlier
stages, and may be given up to 6 Ibs. per head per day.
For milking cows, it gives a pale but firm butter.
Sheep being fattened on roots do well with it up to
i Ib. per head per day, but it should be fed carefully
and only in very small quantities to young stock, as
it is rather difficult to digest, seeing that only three-
quarters of the albuminoids, half of the carbohydrates,
and one-eighth of the fibre are digestible.

The Bombay cotton cake differs from the Egyptian
in its distinctly woolly appearance, caused by the
cotton lint adhering to the seed after ginning. It is
not quite so rich in albuminoids (19 per cent.) or oil
(4 to 5 per cent.), and has in addition a very

62 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

"astringent" action. This is particularly valuable
when cattle or sheep are receiving immature roots in
the autumn, or young grass in the spring, as this cake
counteracts the tendency to scour. Four to 6 Ibs. per
day is generally sufficient for a two-year-old bullock,
and J lb., as part of the ration, for a " teg " or " hogg."

When purchasing undecorticated cotton cakes, one
should avoid to a large extent those which are very
hard and show excessive coarseness of the husk. It
is also a good plan to "nut" the cakes a few days
before they are fed, as they absorb moisture and
become very much softer. Nails, if present, are often
detected in this manner before the cattle get an
opportunity of swallowing them.

Kapok Cakes. — These cakes are obtained after the
seeds have been ground, pressed, and made into cakes
in the usual way.

The cake contains about 26 per cent, albuminoids,
6 per cent, fat, 20 per cent, carbohydrates, with 28
per cent, fibre. The high percentage of fibre is due
to the seeds having very thick, hard hulls. The fat
is nearly all digestible, three-quarters of the albuminoids,
only half the carbohydrates, and one-fifth of the fibre.

Sunflower Cake. — This cake is not much used in
this country, although on the European continent it
is fed to dairy cattle. It has a fairly good composition,
excepting it is high in fibre, as will be seen below :
albuminoids, 19 per cent.; oil, J\ per cent; carbo-
hydrates, 30 per cent. ; fibre, 30 per cent.

It is considered to counteract to a large extent the
tallowy flavour of the fat of bullocks and sheep.

Hemp Cake. — Residue from hemp seeds after oil
extraction. The extraction of oil is often made at a
high temperature, which sometimes causes the cakes

OIL-CAKES 63

to be burnt. They may also be acid in character, and
this means that they should be very carefully fed to
cattle, and not at all to horses and sheep.

The cakes contain: albuminoids, 31 per cent; oil,
10 per cent; carbohydrates, 18 per cent; fibre, 20
per cent.

As this cake is poor in carbohydrates, high in fibre,
and not very digestible, it should be fed in combination
with easily digestible foods, rich in carbohydrates, such
as maize.

(<f) Compound Cakes.

Thousands of tons of cakes which have been
compounded or mixed from various sources are fed to
farm live stock each year.

Frequently some material, such as ground cotton
cakes, rape cakes, cocoa-nut cakes, etc., are taken as
a basis, and along with this may be blended ground
cereal grains, rice meal, bran, dried grains, etc., till the
desired composition is obtained.

The mixed food is made palatable and appetising
by the addition of condimental foods or spices, such as
fenugreek, aniseed, etc., and sweetened with locust-bean
meal or treacle. In this way, foods like rape cake,
which would not otherwise be eaten by stock, are
readily devoured when compounded with other foods.

Considerable care is required in purchasing com-
pound cakes, as they furnish a ready means of getting
rid of musty, faulty, or inferior cakes, warehouse sweep-
ings, etc.

64 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

(e) Leguminous Seeds.

The chief leguminous seeds or pulse grains which
are grown in this country are beans, peas, and tares.
They are all fairly rich in albuminoids (beans contain-
ing 25 per cent, and peas 23 per cent), but are very
poor in oil (ij per cent). In carbohydrates, peas have
54 per cent and beans 48 per cent Fibre is low
(6 to 7 per cent). The following foreign leguminous
seeds deserve special mention : —

"Indian Pea or Gram" (Vigna catjong] is about
the same size as a field pea, dull greyish coloured, and
peculiarly shaped. It has the following composition :
albuminoids, 18 per cent.; fat, 4 per cent; and carbo-
hydrates, 58 per cent. This pea is becoming increas-
ingly popular for blending with other foods which are
rather low in nutrient constituents.

Java Beans (Phaseolus lunatus) should be very care-
fully fed to stock, because, when mixed with the digestive
juices, prussic acid may be generated, which is a deadly
poison. The same thing applies to gorse seeds.

Leguminous seeds, and especially beans, are apt
to produce flatulency (wind on the stomach, etc.), if
fed carelessly to animals ; on this account they should
not exceed, say, a quarter of the concentrates fed.
They should be well ground and mixed with bran and
chop to make a bulky feed.

To the feeder these foods are highly nutritious, and
are particularly useful for mixing with bulky rations as
well as concentrates which are rich in oil. For horses
doing severe work, beans and peas supply them with
wonderful staying power and muscular energy.

PLATE V.

1. Linseed (p. 44).

2. Fenugreek Seed (p. 76).

3. Aniseed (p. 77).

1. English Wheat.

2. Russian Wheat.

3. Canadian Wheat (p. 67).

[Photos &j/ Author.

Sunflower Seed, outside.
Kapok Seed, inside (p. 52).

Soya Beans, outside (p. 51).
Indian Pea, it aide (p. 64\

Various Seeds.

[To face p. 64.

I PEAS, BEANS, AND CEREAL GRAINS 65

(/) Cereal Grains.
These include wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize. They
are only moderately rich in albuminoids (10 to 12 per
cent), but very rich in carbohydrates, since maize, rye,
and wheat contain 70 per cent; barley, 67 per cent,
and oats, 57 per cent. The carbohydrates are present
largely in the form of starch.

Maize and oats are comparatively rich in oil, and on
this account are rather "heating" foods when fed to
animals. All the rest are poor in oil (2 per cent).
The fibre is very low (2 per cent), except in oats
(10 per cent) and barley (5 per cent).

Rice, dari, and millet may also be included in this
group ; the first two can be taken as approximately
equal to maize in composition, except that they are
slightly poorer in oil (rice, 4 per cent ; dari, 3^ per
cent), while millet is about equal to oats.

To the feeder the cereal grains are almost indispens-
able for mixing with foods rich in oil and albuminoids
and poor in carbohydrates (oil-cakes). With oil-cakes
high in fibre, maize should generally be used. Oats
are specially useful for all classes of stock, including
calves. Cereal grains may form a very large proportion
of the concentrated food in the ration for cattle, when
rapid fattening is not required. For pigs they are
sufficient by themselves for fattening purposes.

(g) Miscellaneous Seeds.

Acorns. — The fruits of the oak tree (Quercus} are
shed on the ground in autumn, when they may cause
acorn poisoning in cattle. Some varieties of oak are
said to yield more poisonous acorns than others.

66 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The symptoms of acorn poisoning are : — " Progressive
wasting, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, eyes sunken, sore
places inside of mouth, in fact animal has a peculiarly
haggard appearance. The temperature does not rise
above normal, and is often below the normal tempera-
ture." See Board of Agriculture leaflet, No. 13.

Pigs relish the acorns, and with a plentiful supply
soon put on flesh. The flesh, however, is apt to be soft
and the fat oily.

The fresh acorns contain about 2j per cent,
albuminoids, 2 per cent, fat, and 35 per cent, carbo-
hydrates. When dried, the amount of each constituent
runs up to very nearly double in each case. The
nutrients are very digestible.

Buckwheat (Fagapyrum esculentuvi). — Is a triangular
seed with a fibrous coat. It is fairly rich in albuminoids
(IT per cent.) and carbohydrates (55 per cent.), but
poor in oil (2\ per cent.) and high in fibre (15 per cent).
Used chiefly for poultry.

(/i) Wheat By-products.

In the production of "wheat flour " the wheat grain
is divided during the milling process as follows: —
(a) flour ; (6) fine middlings, or seconds ; (c) coarse
middlings, thirds, or sharps ; (d) bran. The last three
are called " milling offals."

In order to understand milling offals better, one
should know something of the structure of the wheat
grain in section. The two diagrams below (p. 67),
divide the grain into three parts, viz.: (i) seed coat;
(2) aleurone layer, in which is concentrated, to a
large extent, the gluten; (3) the kernel, which is a
mass of cells containing starch. Roughly speaking, the
coarser parts of the seed coat with part of the aleurone

THE MILLING PROCESS

layer and some starch cells adhering, form the bran.
That part of the kernel which is ground sufficiently fine
gives the flour, and everything between the flour and
the bran constitutes the middlings.

Milling Process. — British wheats may be divided
into red wheats and white wheats, according to the
colour of the grain. The former are generally harder,
and yield a flour with a greater "strength" or
gluten-content than the latter; but the white wheats,
and to a smaller extent the red wheats, excel all
foreign wheats in giving a lovely white flour. In
exceptionally hot seasons British red wheats may

Seed-coat \
Aleurone layer f

Starchy

Endosperm.

Section of Wheat Grain.

possess the requisite hardness and strength, but usually
it is necessary to blend them with foreign wheats
to supply these two characteristics to the flour. The
advantages of so doing are that the harder wheats
help the softer wheats to grind better, and the resulting
flour gives a larger number of loaves per sack.

The Hereford Flour Mills were recently using the
following blend, consisting of Indian wheat, 10 per cent. ;
Russian, 20 per cent. ; Manitoba, 20 per cent, English
(red and white), 50 per cent. This blend would
give about 96 loaves (quartern) to the sack, while
average English flour would probably not yield more
than 90.

68 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The blended wheat is often washed and afterwards
dried before it passes on to the series of roller-mills,
consisting of about five in number. The first roller-
mill gives a coarse " break," the second somewhat finer,
while the last gives a very fine " break." All through
the process the kernel is being separated from the bran
and lighter portions of the grain by screening and
currents of air.

Up to the second or even third breaks, the broken
pieces of kernel, called " semolina," are kept separate
from the rest and used for making the finest flour, as a
whiter flour is obtained from the semolina.

The flour is separated from the middlings and bran
by " silks," gauzes, and screens. Flour being the finest,
passes through the finest silks ; while the bran, being
coarsest, stops on the screens, the middlings coming
between in coarseness. At an early stage the
"semolina" and germ are separated by sieves or
gauzes, the latter remaining on twenty wires to the
inch, while the former goes through. In " standard "
flour the germ was added to the flour. It is usual,
however, to include the germ with the coarse middlings
(sharps).

In the roller-mill process 65 to 75 per cent, of
dressed wheat appears as flour, about 14 to 20 per cent,
as bran, and 5 per cent, as middlings. The flour would
be graded during the process into extra superfine,
30 per cent; superfine, 45 per cent; and fine, 25 per
cent. Flour contains about 10 per cent, albuminoids, 75
per cent, carbohydrates, and I per cent, fat

Pine Middlings (Seconds'). — These consist of the finest
portion of the milling offals, and contain albuminoids, 15
per cent. ; oil, 3 \ per cent ; carbohydrates, 62 per cent ;
and fibre, 5 per cent. These have a rather " binding "

MILLING OFFALS 69

tendency when fed to animals, and are useful for feeding
with laxative foods. Ground linseed cake (laxative) and
fine middlings (binding) when blended together make a
splendid calf meal.

Coarse Middlings (Sharps or Thirds). — These come
between bran and fine middlings in fineness, passing
through screens with say eleven wires to the inch, and
remaining on twenty to twenty-two to the inch. They
contain the very fine bran and any flour adhering to
same, plus the germ. Their composition would be about
i per cent, richer in oil, and 5 per cent, poorer in carbo-
hydrates, than fine middlings.

Bran. — Bran is the outer skin of the wheat, and often
extends as deep as the aleurone layer, carrying with it
a certain amount of flour. It is the coarsest part of the
milling offals, and is retained on a screen with eleven
wires to the inch. Oftentimes it is separated into
broad bran (over six wires per inch), and fine bran
(under six and over eleven wires) ; the former command-
ing 2Os. to 303. per ton more than the latter. The
coarse is generally used for horses and the fine for
cattle.

Bran is a favourite food for all classes of live stock.
Being bulky, it is useful for mixing with highly concen-
trated foods to open them up. When made into a mash
with hot water, and fed to live stock, it has a laxative
tendency.

It contains 14 per cent, albuminoids, 4 per cent,
oil, 56 per cent, carbohydrates, and 9 per cent, fibre.
The ash is rich in phosphates, but somewhat poor in
lime.

70 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

(/) Barley By-products.

Brewers and distillers utilise various cereal grains
for the production of alcoholic drinks — e.g., beer, ale,
etc. — on account of the ease with which the starch in
these grains becomes converted into sugar by fermenta-
tion, and finally into alcohol. In the later stages of
fermentation yeast is employed. Barley, however, is
the grain most largely used for this purpose.

Good malting barley should be a pale clear straw
colour, free from any discoloration by weathering in
the field or heating in the stack. The awns should
not have been broken off too close to the kernel. The
grains should be uniform in size, with finely wrinkled
husks, well fed, and the kernel free from flintiness ; in
fact, when cut across, the kernel should be white and
starchy.

Malting of Barley. — The barley, after being steeped
in water at about 55° F. for two to three days, is spread
out on the floor of a well-ventilated room in a layer
12 to 14 ins. thick. The enzymes in the grains begin
to convert the starch into sugar in order to support the
growth of the germ, oxygen is absorbed, carbon dioxide
gas. and heat evolved. The grain needs to be stirred
periodically in order to aerate and cool it. After a
few days it is sprinkled with water. In about fourteen
days the sprouts have grown about f in. long, and are
ready for kiln drying. It has now arrived at the malt
stage.

Kiln Drying. — The sprouted grain is removed to a
kiln where the temperature can be regulated at will,
and is gradually heated up to a temperature of I7O°F.
The sprouts are thereby killed and this heating process
also gives the characteristic flavour, etc., to the malt.

Thp ,

BARLEY BY-PRODUCTS 71

The object of the malting is to remove most of the
albuminoids from the grain as they interfere with
the brewing process. These are mainly concentrated
in the sprout, and can now be removed by screening,
leaving behind the pure malt, which amounts to about
75 per cent, of the weight of barley taken.

Malt Coombs or Cummins. — Cummins are the sprouts
which are removed by screening, and amount to about
4 per cent, of the original weight of barley. They
contain about 23 per cent, albuminoids, 2 per cent, oil,
44 per cent, carbohydrates, and 12 J per cent, fibre.

Cummins are an excellent food for milk cows, and give
to other foods a peculiar flavour and aroma, which makes
them attractive to stock. They should be carefully fed
to breeding stock, and kept in a dry room, or they may
become mouldy. The sweepings from the drying kilns
are called " kiln dust."

Brewers' Grains. — The pure malt is placed in the
huge tuns and made into a mash with hot water, to
encourage the formation of sugar from the starch. In
this way the sugar is dissolved out and removed in
the sugary liquid called " wort," which is further
fermented with yeast into beer, etc. The grains left
behind in the mash tuns are removed and go under the
name of "wet brewers' grains."

The " wet grains " may be carted away at once and
used for cows in milk. If fed too freely, they are con-
sidered to have a prejudicial effect on the quality of
the milk. They should be most carefully fed if they
have become acid or mouldy.

The "dried grains" are wet grains with the bulk of
the water evaporated off by heat (i.e. desiccated) in order
to make them keep. The drying reduces them to about
one-quarter the weight of the wet grains. They can be

72 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

fed to all classes of stock up to 6 or 8 Ibs. per head per
day as part of the concentrated diet, and supply a bulky
food which opens up very rich foods such as decorticated
cotton cakes, etc. Sometimes they are made into a
mash for dairy cows. Their composition is as follows :
— Albuminoids, 19 per cent. ; oil, 5 J per cent. ; carbo-
hydrates, 45 per cent. ; fibre, 19 per cent.

Distillery Grains. — These are very similar to brewers'
grains, except that other cereal grains besides barley
may be used, such as wheat, maize, oats, rice, etc., in
order to supply the starch. The process of fermentation
is not carried on quite so far, hence distillers' grains
have a somewhat higher feeding value than brewers'
grains. According to Dr Voelcker the oil and albumin-
oids may each be as much as 4 per cent, richer, and the
carbohydrates and fibre respectively 4 per cent, poorer,
than in brewers' grains.

(/) Oat By-products.

In the manufacture of oatmeal, the oats are kiln-
dried before they are ground. This enables the meal
to separate better from the hulls, which are subse-
quently screened off. The short silky hairs found on
the thin end of the kernel are also separated and
collected, giving what is called "oat dust." In this
way about 60 to 65 per cent, of the weight of the
oats taken appears as oatmeal, and 20 to 25 per cent,
as offal. This shrinkage is largely a result of kiln-
drying whereby a certain amount of moisture is lost.
Probably three-quarters of the offal consists of oat
hulls.

Oatmeal contains 7 to 8 per cent, oil, n to 15 per
cent, albuminoids, 60 per cent, carbohydrates, and 3 per

OAT BY-PRODUCTS 73

cent, fibre. It is a splendid food for human beings, and
that grown in the Edinburgh district appears to be
peculiarly suitable for this purpose.

For cattle it forms a very useful constituent of the
concentrated part of the ration, especially when cattle
are being fattened. Sometimes the oatmeal is made
into a dough with hot water, moulded by the hands
into balls, then fed to cattle in this ball form, say,
4 to 6 Ibs. per head per day. This method answers
where cattle are being fed off on grass-land.

Horses are fond of it, but it is only advisable to
feed oatmeal when horses are doing hard work.

Oat Husks. — These husks have adhering to them
a certain amount of oatmeal, which gives them a
pronounced smell of the meal. They are high in
fibre (30 per cent), poor in albuminoids (3 per cent.) and
oil (i per cent), but are very useful for opening up
or separating highly concentrated foods, as well as
giving the whole feed a very attractive smell. The
hulls are not very easily digested by stock.

Oat Dust. — Oat dust contains about 13 per cent
albuminoids, 5 per cent oil, 50 per cent carbohydrates,
and 1 8 per cent, fibre. It is important for feeding
purposes because it has an astringent or " binding "
effect on the bowels of the animal, consequently it
may be included with other foods which are rather
too laxative, and for this purpose may be used up
to one-quarter of the concentrates in the ration.

(£) By-products from Maize.

The chief by-products from maize which are being
used for feeding purposes in this country at the present
time are maize germ meal, gluten meal, and gluten feed.

74 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Maize Germ Meal. — The maize is ground by the
roller-mill process, after which the germ is removed
and collected. The germ meal is rich in oil (10 to 12
per cent.) and carbohydrates (60 per cent), and fairly
rich in albuminoids (12 per cent). It is very digestible,
and suitable for dairy cows up to 6 Ibs. per head per
day.

Gluten Meal and Gluten Peed. — When maize
starch is required, it is removed by careful washing
from maize, which has been previously ground down
to a meal. The residue consists of the germ and, in
fact, everything except the starch. It is divided into
two grades, chiefly according to its richness or poor-
ness in fibre. Those low in fibre (2 per cent.) are
called gluten meal, while those containing a larger
proportion of fibre (6 per cent.) are called gluten feed.

The gluten meal is also richer in albuminoids (38 per
cent.) and oil (4 per cent), but poorer in carbo-
hydrates (45 per cent) than gluten feed, which contains
albuminoids 26 per cent, oil 3 per cent, and carbo-
hydrates 53 per cent.

These foods have proved themselves to be very
suitable for dairy cows in the south-west of Scotland.
(See Mr Robb's Report, Glasgow and West of Scotland
Agricultural College.)

Flaked Maize. — This term is applied to maize
which has been cleaned, crushed, cooked, rolled into
" flakes," and dried. By so doing the bulk is consider-
ably increased, and the palatability is improved ; but
it is very questionable if the cooking increases the
digestibility, seeing that the oil and carbohydrates are
practically all digestible in the uncooked maize.

Flaked maize is now being sold under the names of
" Kositos " and " Uveco."

MAIZE AND RICE BY-PRODUCTS 75

Maize Bran is the outer portion of the seed, and
a similar product is being sold under the name of
" Homco."

(/) By-products from Rice.

Rice meal is a by-product from rice mills, where
the rice is being prepared for human consumption. It
is rich in oil (12 per cent.) and carbohydrates (50 per
cent), moderately rich in albuminoids (12 per cent),
and contains about 8 per cent of fibre. Sometimes
rice hulls, which consist of hard, indigestible fibrous
material, may find their way into the meal. It does
not keep at all well, as the oil quickly decomposes.

It may be used for all classes of stock as part of
the concentrated food, more especially with those foods
which are rich in albuminoids and poor in oil.

(m) Miscellaneous By-products.

Apple Pomace, or the residue after the juice has been
expressed from apples in cider-making, is fairly rich in
carbohydrates.

The " fresh residue," according to Wolff, contains on
an average: water, 75 per cent; albuminoids, 1-6 per
cent; carbohydrates, 17-5 per cent; fat, 1-2 per cent;
and fibre, 4-9 per cent Half the albuminoids and fat,
two-thirds of the carbohydrates, and rather less than
half the fibre are digestible.

The " dried residue," on an average, contains : water,
15 per cent ; albuminoids, 5^ per cent ; carbohydrates,
49 per cent; fat,1 3^ per cent; and fibre, 21 per cent
The digestibility bears about the same proportion for
the different nutrients in each case as those in the fresh
1 / Ether Extract.

76 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

residue. It appears that considerable quantities of
apple mast are sent to cake manufacturers, where it is no
doubt blended with other foods in the manufacture of
compound cakes. In Germany it is sometimes made
into jam.

Spent Hops. — Spent hops are fairly rich in nutrients,
containing, according to Wolff, about 16 per cent,
albuminoids, 6 per cent, fat,1 40-5 per cent, carbo-
hydrates, and 21 per cent, fibre. Half the carbo-
hydrates, two-thirds of the fat, one-third of the
albuminoids, and very nearly one-seventh of the fibre
are digestible.

(/i) Condimental Poods.

Fenugreek. — This is a leguminous plant (Trigonelld]^
which produces seeds with an aromatic odour. The
commercial fenugreek meal is made by grinding the
seeds down to a meal and removing the husk, bran, and
coarser portions out of it. It is used as a spice or
condiment, and for this purpose is sprinkled on
unattractive or inferior foods such as hay, chopped
straw, and bulky fodders generally. It can be bought
at approximately 2Os. per cwt.

For spicing inferior hay, i cwt. may be added to
10 tons of hay.

Locust Beans (Ceratonia siliqua). — The valuable
part of the locust bean plant, or carob tree, for feeding
purposes is the thick pod, which has a very sweet taste
and agreeable smell. It grows in the Mediterranean
district. The pods are carefully shaken off the tree
while still unripe, and sun-dried. This ripens the pod
and causes it to darken in colour. The seeds in the pod

1 Ether Extract.

CONDIMENTS 77

are very hard, hence it is usual to extract them, and
retain the pods chiefly for stock-feeding purposes. The
following is the composition : — 6 per cent, albuminoids,
i£ per cent, oil, 70 per cent, carbohydrates, and 6 per
cent, fibre. The carbohydrates are all digestible.

The locust beans may be obtained on the market
as : —

(1) Nuts, i.e., broken down to approximately half-

inch in length.

(2) Coarsely ground meal — about size of peas. The

above are both very suitable for lamb foods, etc.

(3) Medium ground meal — fine for horses.

(4) Finely ground meal — used chiefly for spices.

Aniseed (Pimpinella anisuni). — An umbelliferous
plant, valuable for its aromatic fruits. It is used for
spicing foods, and thus making them attractive to
animals.

Gentian. — The root of the gentian plant (Gentiana
luted] is first dried and then ground into a powder. It
is a most valuable stomach tonic.

Coriander. — The fruit of the coriander plant (Cori-
andrum sativum} is used as an aromatic stimulant as
well as a spice for inferior foods.

Ginger. — Commercial ginger is the rhizome of the
ginger plant (Zingiber officinal}. Rhizomes are dug up
and plunged in boiling water for a few minutes, and
dried in the sun (black ginger) ; or, if the outer skin is
scraped till white after washing, it is called white ginger.
When mixed with foods in the powdered form it helps to
remove the gases which may accumulate in the stomach
or intestines.

Cane Sugar Molasses. — This is the by-product
obtained after the extraction of sugar from the sugar-cane

78 THE STQCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

and has a thick, black appearance, with a sweetish taste.
It contains about 30 per cent, of cane sugar, and 30 per
cent, of other sugars. It does not appear to have the
same laxative effect as beet molasses, which contains
50 per cent, more salts than are found in cane sugar
molasses. The molasses are used very largely for
mixing with inferior or unpalatable foods in order to
give them an agreeable flavour. Further, it is used for
conditioning animals, and provides at the same time
a useful laxative and appetiser. It should not be fed
too freely to breeding animals, as it is believed by some
to cause sterility.

Beet Sugar Molasses. — The molasses obtained from
beet sugar factories is somewhat bitter, and very
laxative. It contains a large amount of sugar (45 per
cent.), which is present chiefly as cane sugar. Further,
it contains about 13 per cent, of various salts. Beet
molasses by itself is not suitable for feeding to farm
animals, on account of its richness in alkaline salts,
chiefly potash; but if combined with, say, sphagnum
moss, the latter neutralises and corrects to a large extent
any harmful effects on animals which the beet molasses
may possess.

Makbar. — Hops, after being used by the brewer, are
taken, cleaned, mixed with cane sugar molasses and
wheat meal. Hops are appetisers, and promote
digestion. At the same time they form the absorbent
for molasses.

Composition: — Oil, 2-05 per cent; protein, 8-37
per cent. ; carbohydrates, 60-07 Per cent. ; minerals, 6-26
per cent.

Molastella. — The absorbent in this case is tapioca
meal. It is mixed with cane sugar molasses, giving a
brownish coloured meal, and is made at the Tapioca

MOLASSES FEEDS 79

Flour Mills in Java, from which place over 12,000 tons
a year is sold.

Composition : — Oil, 0-30 per cent. ; protein, i-oo per
cent; carbohydrates, 72-35 per cent; fibre, 5-15 per
cent. ; ash, 6-9 per cent.

Soya Treacle Cake. — The basis in this case is
soya bean after all but 2 per cent, of oil has been
expressed, then cane sugar molasses is added. The
meal is previously cooked by a special process.

Composition : — Protein, 40 per cent. ; oil, 2 per
cent. ; carbohydrates, 32 per cent

Molascuit. — The absorbent for molasses in this case
is the pith or finer parts of the sugar cane which remain
after the sugar has been extracted. This is blended
with the cane sugar molasses. The amount fed is
J Ib. to 5 Ibs. according to age and kind of animal, and
has approximately the following analysis : —

Protein, 1-88 per cent.; oil, 0-83 per cent; carbo-
hydrates, 66-88 per cent ; fibre, 6-76 per. cent.

Molassine. — This, like molascuit, is made by adding
cane sugar molasses to an absorbent (sphagnum moss),
and has approximately the following composition : —

Protein, 6-30 per cent, (only one-fifth of this consists
of albuminoids) ; oil, r per cent. ; carbohydrates, 46 per
cent, (three-quarters of this is cane sugar) ; fibre, 6 per
cent ; ash, 8 per cent.

Dried apple pomace is sometimes used as an
absorbent for molasses.

(o) Fodder Crops.

Clover hay is the richest fodder crop in albuminoids,
containing 13 per cent It also contains 2j per cent
fat, 37 per cent, carbohydrates, and 25 per cent, fibre ;

80 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

while meadow hay contains 10 per cent, albuminoids,
2\ per cent, fat, 42 per cent, carbohydrates, and 26 per
cent, fibre.

The " cereal " straws (wheat, rye, barley, and oats)
are poor in albuminoids (3 to 4 per cent.) and oil (i to
2 per cent). They are moderately rich in carbohydrates
(33 to 38 per cent), but these consist largely of various
celluloses. They are, however, very high in fibre (37
to 44 per cent), and in winter-sown cereals the fibre
may be so high that, according to Kellner, 80 per cent
of the digestible nutrients of these cereal straws would
be required to furnish sufficient energy for mastication,
digestion, etc.

Oat straw and barley straw are equally rich in
albuminoids (3! per cent), whilst wheat and rye
straw contain 3 per cent Fibre is highest in rye
(44 per cent.) and lowest in oat straw (37 per cent).
The younger the straw is at cutting-time, the richer it
is in albuminoids, and the lower it is in fibre ; while
straw which is allowed to become dead ripe is very
poor in albuminoids and very high in fibre.

The chaff (barren glumes) has a slightly higher
nutritive value than the straw.

Leguminous straws are very much richer in nutri-
ents than cereal straws. Pea straw is slightly richer
in albuminoids (9 per cent) than bean (8 per cent),
and in carbohydrates 34 per cent as against 31 per
cent, in bean straw.

Pea, bean, and vetch straws have all " a binding
tendency," and require feeding in conjunction with
some laxative food. The stems are rather coarse,
but horses appear to relish them. The chaff (empty
pods) has about the same nutritive value as
clover hay.

FODDER AND FORAGE CROPS 81

To the feeder the fodder crops supply a bulky and
fibrous food which opens up the concentrated foods,
and by so doing allows the digestive juices to do their
work more effectively. The term " bulky " means that
a much larger weight of food is required to yield a
given weight of nutrients than is the case with concen-
trated foods.

(p) Green or Forage Crops.

Common examples of Forage crops are : — Lucerne,
clover, vetches, pasture grass, rape, cabbages, swede and
turnip tops. These contain a large proportion of water,
varying from 76 per cent, in lucerne, 80 per cent, in
pasture grass, and up to 88 per cent, in the case of
turnip tops.

Lucerne is richest in protein (4! per cent.) ; followed
by clover and vetches, 3^ per cent. ; pasture grass, 3
per cent. ; rape, 2f per cent. ; cabbages, 2^ per cent. ;
while turnip tops are poorest (2 per cent).

The oil is less than I per cent, in all cases, while
the carbohydrates and fibre are both less than 10 per
cent.

The nutrients are considered to have a slightly
less value in these green foods than those in cereal
grains.

Green foods generally have a cooling and laxative
effect on stock, although the leguminous crops are
less potent in this direction than the other crops.

(g) Root Crops.

Potatoes, sugar beet, carrots, mangels, swedes, and
turnips constitute what are called " root crops."

Potatoes and sugar beet contain about 75 per cent,
water ; carrots, 87 per cent. ; mangels, 88 per cent. ;

82 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

swedes, 89 per cent. ; and turnips, 90 per cent. ; hence
they are all very succulent foods. Large roots contain
a larger proportion of water than smaller ones. Liberal
nitrogenous manuring also increases the proportion
of water in roots.

They are all very poor in protein (less than
2 per cent.) and oil (J per cent). Potatoes are fairly
rich in carbohydrates (21 per cent.), which is mostly
present as starch ; and sugar beet has 20 per cent,
largely in the form of sugar ; while the remainder have
less than ro per cent. In carrots, mangels, swedes,
and turnips the carbohydrates are present largely as
sugar, which is easily digestible. The fibre is at the
same time low. Potash and soda predominate in the
mineral matter, but it is rather poor in lime and
phosphoric acid.

These root crops are bulky foods, hence they are
fed more liberally to ruminants.

The chief characteristics of root crops to the feeder
are that they supply a bulky and very succulent food,
which has a cooling and laxative effect on farm
animals, hence root crops are of immense importance in
counteracting the costive tendency of straw crops and
some of the concentrated foods.

Ash Constituents in Feeding Stuffs.

The ash constituents are usually present in sufficient
quantity for the formation of bone and muscle. Those
of most concern are phosphoric acid, lime, potash, and
soda.

Oil-cakes and bran are comparatively rich in " phos-
phoric acid," while meadow hay is poor.

Leguminous straws — viz., bean, pea, vetch, clover
hay — as well as leafy produce generally (e.g.y cabbages

ASH CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS 83

and turnip tops, etc.), are all comparatively rich in
"lime," while cereal grains (especially maize and rice)
and potatoes are poor in this constituent. If the
drinking-water is hard, this may supply to some extent
the deficiency in the food.

Roots, meadow and clover hay, leguminous straws,
and oil-cakes are comparatively rich in "potash," while
cereal grains are rather poor.

Many foods contain insufficient soda for the require-
ments of the animal body, and this is best supplied in
the form of rock salt, so that the animal may regulate the
quantity at will. Common salt should not be given to
pigs or poultry, especially with sharps, which are
slightly acid, otherwise some of them may suffer and
even die from salt-poisoning.

XIII. VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OP PLANTS.

The chief causes which are responsible for variation
in the composition of plants are : ( I ) climate ; (2) variety ;
(3) manuring ; (4) stage of ripeness when harvested ;
(5) weather conditions during harvesting and storage.

Climate. — It is well known that Canadian and
Russian wheats are richer in gluten and poorer in
carbohydrates (starch) than British wheats, due to the
shorter growing season and hotter climate in Canada
and Russia than in Britain.

Flax seed grown on the European continent is
richer in oil than that grown in Ireland.

Grieg and Hendrick (Aberdeen) found with refer-
ence to oat straw that it varied in different counties,
e.g.) Morayshire straws were richer in albuminoids and
lower in fibre than those under trial in Ross and
Cromarty. In the former case the straw of Potato

84 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

oat averaged 4-43 per cent, albuminoids, and 40-45
per cent, fibre, while in the latter case the figures
were 2-81 per cent, and 47-12 per cent, respectively.
The explanation being that, in the cold, damp season of
1903 the straws of Potato oat as well as Storm King
were favourably affected in the fine dry climate of
Morayshire, but unfavourably affected in the moister
climate of Ross and Cromarty.

Variety. — Red wheats have, generally speaking,
greater " strength," i.e. are richer in gluten, than white
wheats. At the same time they are correspondingly
poorer in carbohydrates (starch).

With oats the proportion of husk varies with the
variety. The husk of thin-" skinned " oats (Sandy
Newmarket, Potato, etc.) would not generally exceed 25
per cent, while thick-" skinned " varieties (Storm King
and Tartar King) may go well over 30 per cent, of husk.

Grieg and Hendrick's experiments l showed that
the composition of the " dry " oat kernel varied in
different varieties ; e.g., Potato oat gave an average
analysis in three counties of 9-30 per cent, oil and 15-5
per cent, albuminoids, while Storm King was poorer
in oil (5-88 per cent.) but richer in albuminoids (16-51
per cent).

Straws from different varieties of oats in the same
experiments also varied in composition. A striking
point brought out was that straw from Storm King
in Ross and Cromarty was lowest in fibre (44 per cent.),
as against 47-12 per cent in such a favourite oat straw
as the Potato.

Manuring. — The size of the crop is very much
increased by liberal manuring, owing to larger amounts
of mineral matter and nitrogen being taken up in solution

1 Report, 1905, Aberdeen College.

VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF PLANTS 85

from the soil. The crop grows rank and sappy, conse-
quently the nitrogenous matter is largely present in the
form of amides. Heavy nitrogenous manuring would
tend to increase considerably the proportion of water and
probably double the protein in the plant, while phos-
phatic and potassic manures would tend to increase the
proportion of carbohydrates, and, by causing the plant to
mature earlier, the proportion of albuminoid nitrogen.

Small mangels may contain 2 to 3 per cent, less
water than large mangels, and the carbohydrates be
increased by the same amount; hence, ton for ton,
small roots have a greater feeding value than large ones.
This does not mean a small crop is better than a large
one, but simply emphasises the fact that in a 30 or
40 ton crop (per acre) it is better to have the roots
of medium rather than of very large size; hence it
is generally wise to leave the plants fairly close together
at singling time.

In Ireland, it appears from a Report of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture that "complete" mixtures1 of
artificials increased the bushel weight of oats.

At Garforth (1899 and 1900), Herbert Hunter
carried out experiments to test the effect of various
artificial manures on the composition and quality of
barley. The report shows that a nitrogenous manure
alone, or even with phosphatic manure in addition,
adversely affected the quality, which was only improved
when " complete " mixtures were used. A nitrogenous
manure in incomplete mixtures appeared to increase the
percentage of nitrogen in the grain, but when applied in
conjunction with phosphates and potash, the proportion
was hardly affected.

1 A "complete mixture " of artificials refers to those artificial
manures which supply Nitrogen, Phosphates, and Potash.

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

A phosphatic manure improved the yield of barley
grain considerably, but had little effect on the proportion
of phosphates in it. The potash manure did not
influence the yield of grain greatly, but it increased the
proportion of potash in the grain. The "complete"
mixture gave the lowest percentage of nitrogen, and
the highest percentage of potash.

Stage of Ripeness when Harvested. — This applies
more especially to seeds and meadow hay and straw
crops generally, as well as to roots. An example taken
from Warington's Chemistry of the Farm will indicate the
general effect on hay and, to some extent, straw crops.

Table showing Variation of Composition of Meadow Hay.

Nitrogenous Matter.

Date

Soluble

Oil.

Carbo-

Fibre.

Ash.

Cutting.

Albumi-
noids.

Amides.

hydrates.

per cent.

I4th-' May .

n-5

6-2

3-3

40-8

23-0

15-3

gth June .

9-4

1-8

2-7

43-2

34-9

8-0

26th June .

7-8

o-7

2-7

43-3

38-2

7-3

The grass on I4th May was quite young; on 9th
June it was in full flower; while on 26th June it was
dead ripe. The table shows that as the plant matures,
the proportion of nitrogenous matter and ash con-
stituents diminishes, while the proportion of carbo-
hydrates and fibre increases. At the same time the
amides are largely converted into albuminoids. Young
grass is richer in albuminoids and poorer in fibre than
older grass. When both bulk and digestibility are
taken into account, hay crops should be cut as soon
as the majority of the plants are in full bloom, because
after this point has been reached, the grasses become

VARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF PLANTS 87

hard and brittle, due to the increased formation of
fibre, and passage of nutrients into seed ; consequently
they are less digestible.

Weather Conditions during Harvesting and
Storage. — If much rain falls while the grass is being
made into hay, the grass may begin to ferment and
turn yellow in the swath. This fermentation would
cause some splitting up or decomposition of the
nutrients, with evolution of carbon dioxide gas, hence
food material would be lost. At the same time
the rain-water would dissolve a certain amount of the
soluble constituents out, especially the soluble carbo-
hydrates and to a smaller extent the nitrogenous
matter and fat, as will be seen in the following table.

Effect of Rain on Red Clover Hay (Baesler's Analysis}.

Water.

Protein.

Fibre.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrates,
etc.

Ash.

Not rained on .
Rained on four^j
weeks, 4^ ins. >-
rainfall. J

per cent.
1 6-0

16-0

per cent.
14-9

I2-I

per cent.
21-6

32-2

per cent.
2-4

1-6

per cent.
38-0

30-9

per cent.
7'I

7-i

In the "heating of hay" the hay turns a bright
yellow or brownish colour, and, if continued much
further, ultimately black. Simultaneously a consider-
able amount of heat is generated.

When hay is stacked too soon, the heat generated may be so
intense as to cause it to ignite (fire). Firing, however, does not
take place until a few weeks have expired, as the heat has to
drive off the surplus moisture before ignition will take place.

The drier the hay is made before stacking, the less
will it heat. The more imperfect the drying process
the more it will heat ; hence, the presence of a certain
amount of moisture encourages these fermentative

88 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

changes, or the " heating " process. Warington points
out that the soluble carbohydrates suffer most, the
albuminoids at the same time being converted into
amides, while the digestibility of the fibre is improved.

XIV. PERMANENT GRASS AND FORAGE CROPS.

The importance of a regular supply of green food
on farms where live stock are kept from early spring
to late in the autumn, can hardly be overestimated.
Green food appears to be the natural food for milk,
consequently a special attempt should be made to have
a supply in the early spring for lambing ewes and
milking cows. In counties where the pastures are
apt to fail in the hot summer months, forage or soiling
crops have to be grown to tide over this dry period.
This was more often the case in the days when
seed mixtures containing rye grass and clover only were
used for seeding down land to permanent pastures.
Now, however, this difficulty can be largely overcome,
if a suitable mixture of seeds is selected. The following
hints will no doubt be found useful.

Permanent Pasture.

The ideal pasture is one which has a close turf and
gives a regular and abundant supply of nutritious
herbage throughout the growing season of the year.
In order to secure such a pasture, it is necessary to
include pasture plants which grow early in the year and
those which grow late ; plants of both tufted (top
grasses) and creeping (bottom grasses) habits ; those
with deep tap roots as well as those with shallow roots.
Further, it is important to include only those plants
which are adapted to the particular soil and climate.
A not unusual way of making up a pasture mixture at

PLATE VI.

A. Haymaking. — Cutting a fine crop of Seeds Hay at Mr David Arnott's
Brechin, Forfarshire (p. 127).

[Photos by Author*

B. Scotch Haymaking. — Making the Tramp Coil at Mr David Young's,
Mill Farm, Invergowrie, N.B. (p. 127).

PLATE VII.

[Between pp. 88, 89-

PERMANENT PASTURES 89

the present time is to include a small quantity of the
seed of almost every grass and clover which has any
feeding value at all. This system has some advantages
but many disadvantages, inasmuch as it is expensive,
and a number of second-rate pasture plants are
introduced which produce only scanty feed for stock.

With the object of securing a good pasture mixture
of maximum productivity on the most economical
lines, the writer examined the herbage of a large
number of the best pastures in the Border district of
Scotland, and to some extent in England, at various
seasons of the year. This enabled him to eliminate a
number of pasture plants from the mixture which were
often included, and include only those plants which
were actually doing their duty in supplying abundant,
succulent herbage for farm live stock.

The seeds mixture;1 ultimately arrived at was as
follows : —

Ibs. per acre.

Italian rye grass .... 4

Perennial rye grass .... 3

Cocksfoot . i . . . i

Timothy ..... 2

Meadow fescue ..... 4

Tall fescue ..... .

Rough-stalked meadow grass t

Red clover (perennial) .... 2

Alsike clover ..... 2

White or Dutch clover i

Wild white clover . . . . i

Trefoil ...... 2

Chicory ...... i|

Burnet ...... 4

Total seeds per acre . . . 32^

1 This seeds mixture may be cheapened somewhat, without
materially affecting the utility of the pasture, by reducing the
alsike clover to i Ib. and the chicory to i Ib. each per acre.

90 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

This mixture excels most other mixtures, inasmuch
as it contains grasses and clovers along with a small
proportion of special drought-resisting plants, such as
chicory and burnet. In fact, it is a modification
of the Elliot mixture, but in the opinion of the writer
and many practical farmers who have seen them grow-
ing side by side, is much more suitable on land up to 800
ft. elevation. In Herefordshire last year (1913), when
pastures sown with local mixtures of seeds were quite
burnt up with the hot, dry summer, those sown with the
above mixture continued to give succulent feed for
the stock.

In Roxburghshire, very similar mixtures are giving
excellent results between 300 and 800 feet above sea-
level, as at Charterhouse, Kelso, and Oxnam Neuk,
Jedburgh.

When purchasing seeds for pasture mixtures it is
most important to have a guarantee of the purity,
germination, and bushel weight of the seeds.

Preparation of Soil. — The soil should be freed from
weeds and well cultivated, so as to secure a good surface
tilth. Unless the land is in "good heart," it should
receive a dressing of slag (5 cwt.) and kainit (2 cwt)
in autumn to strengthen the clovers. This treatment
has enabled many farmers to grow clover successfully on
land which was considered to be " clover-sick."

Sowing Seeds. — The seeds are generally sown with
a cereal crop, or with rape. Generally speaking it is
advisable to divide the seeds into two parts, and sow
one part in a direction at right angles to the other
part, so as to ensure a more uniform distribution of
seeds and a better turf.

After Management. — The land should be rolled
both in autumn and spring if there is a danger of its

PASTURES AND MEADOWS 91

being too loose. If the grass is cut for hay the first
year, the plants should not be allowed to ripen before
cutting, otherwise the plants will suffer. Thistles, if
present, should be cut in the late summer as soon as the
flowering heads have formed. Docks should be pulled
up, when possible, immediately after heavy rain.

It is not advisable to graze a young pasture
constantly with the same kind of stock, as it scarcely
gives some of the plants a chance to spread and fill up
the bottom. An occasional short rest of say two weeks
gives plants like white clover an opportunity of spread-
ing. On the other hand, a pasture should be sufficiently
heavily stocked to prevent its becoming rough. Hard
grazing is much better than the other extreme. An
application of compost (lime and earth) is always effective
in sweetening the herbage and strengthening the clovers.

Timothy Meadows.

The value of timothy hay for horses is probably
not so widely appreciated as it should be. In the
first place, the seed is comparatively cheap, and the
grass flowers a fortnight or three weeks later than
Italian rye grass, consequently the hay harvest does
not all come in at one and the same time. Further,
timothy yields a very heavy crop of hay of high
feeding value.

Timothy thrives best on moist, deep soils, and
should, generally speaking, not be sown on sandy or
thin, dry soils. The seed is sown in the usual way
with one of the cereal crops, at the rate of about
20 Ibs. per acre. Seeing that the seed is so small, it
is important to have the surface soil in a fine condition
before the seeds are sown, so as to obtain successful
germination.

92 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

In some cases meadow fescue l is included with the
timothy, to the extent of 6 or 8 Ibs. per acre, as it
flowers approximately the same time (June) and yields
hay of excellent quality. The mixture also ensures
a more uniform crop. In other cases, Italian rye grass
is included to give a fairly good crop of hay the first year.
The rye grass may, however, smother the timothy some-
what the first year, and if included, should not exceed
8 Ibs. per acre. The argument put forth is that timothy
does not generally grow a full crop the first year, and
Italian rye grass holds the land for the first year
and then dies out, leaving the ground entirely to the
timothy.

Improving Poor Old Pasture.

There are several ways in which this may be brought
about. Probably the first essential is that the land
should be drained in some way or other ; after this
a suitable manuring will be required.

A very effective system is to lamb the ewes on
a rough pasture. The ewes then tread all the rough
grass away, and at the same time give the field a good
manuring. After the sheep are taken out of the field,
the herbage grows sweeter, and white clover develops,
thus giving an excellent class of herbage for the stock.

In rough, sour, benty pastures a dressing of 2 to
4 tons cob (burnt) lime, or 10 cwts. ground lime per acre,
sweetens the herbage very considerably. Composts
of lime and earth are usually very effective.

Generally speaking, an excellent mode of procedure
is to give the grass-land a dressing of 6 cwts. basic
slag, and 3 cwts. kainit per acre. Experiments in

1 A pound each of rough-stalked meadow grass and white
clover is sometimes included to improve the aftermath.

IMPROVEMENT OF OLD PASTURE 93

connection with various agricultural colleges have
shown that pasture land after being treated in this
way has carried a much heavier stocking of sheep per
acre, and produced a much larger amount of live-weight
increase. (See reports of the Glasgow and Edinburgh
Agricultural Colleges, also Cockle Park experiments.)

On soils rich in lime, potassic super (super and
kainit) gives equally good results as at the Midland
Dairy Institute, where dairy cows grazing on manured
plots gave considerably larger quantities of milk.1
On light soils a dressing of 4 cwts. of raw bone
meal often brings about the desired effect.

Forage or Soiling Crops.

The term forage or soiling crop refers generally
to those crops which are grown on arable land for
their stems and leaves, and are cut and fed to stock
in the green state. It is also usual to include rape and
mustard, which are fed off by sheep on the ground.

These crops are all important in the south and east
of England, where the climate is usually hot in summer,
and the land is considered to be too dry to grow
permanent grass satisfactorily. Hence the land is kept
arable, and any green food which is required for live
stock is grown in rotation cropping. The chief plants
which are used for this purpose are : —

Rye, oats, barley, Italian rye grass, and maize ;
lucerne, sainfoin, vetches, trifolium and trefoil.

Rye, Barley, and Oats are sown either in the
autumn or spring, and generally along with vetches, at
the rate of 2 to 4 bushels of the cereal grain to I bushel

1 During the last three years the average amount of milk
produced from cows fed on the manured plots amounted to
93 galls, per acre more than that produced from cows fed on the
unmanured plots.

94 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

of vetches. The resulting crop, which is bulky and
very nutritious, can be cut about four to six months
after sowing.

Italian Rye Grass can be seeded down in early
spring at the rate of 2 to 2j bushels per acre. It will
then be ready for cutting the following autumn, and if
well manured, may be cut three to five times the
following year.

The rye grass may also be seeded down with
a straw crop in the usual manner.

Maize. — This plant is now being grown more exten-
sively in the South of England. The best variety
is the " White Horse-tooth," which grows quickly
and produces a large amount of succulent food. The
seed should not be sown earlier than June, and at the
rate of i to 2 bushels per acre. In order to prevent to
some extent the depredations of wood-pigeons, the seed
should be treated with tar or red lead before sowing.
The crop can usually be cut in August and September.

Lucerne (Alfalfa) may be sown down in April at the
rate of 20 to 30 Ibs. of seed per acre, either with a straw
crop or without. If with a cereal crop, care should be
taken not to sow the cereal too thick, otherwise it may
smother the lucerne out. A dressing of basic slag
and kainit with the cereal crop would strengthen the
lucerne plants and make the crop more productive.1
The following year the lucerne could be cut four or five
times, and may be left down for three to five years.

Sainfoin, which grows well on very dry, chalky soils,
may be seeded down in the same way as lucerne,
but with about 50 Ibs. of milled seeds per acre. It may
1 At the West of Scotland Experimental Farm (Kilmarnock)
the lucerne on plots, which had been inoculated with the nodule-
forming bacteria for this crop, was much more vigorous than on
the untreated plots.

FORAGE CROPS 95

be cut frequently like lucerne, and can be left down
for several years. One feature of it is that it thrives
on dry chalky soils which are too poor for lucerne.

Vetches or Tares. — This is a most useful crop for
forage purposes, and may be seeded down in " breaks "
so as to supply a succession of green food during the
summer and autumn. As mentioned above, cereal
crops are often sown with this crop to support the
vetches. Sow 2 to 3 bushels per acre.

Trifolium, or Crimson Clover. — This plant grows
very rapidly, and the seeds are best sown in early August,
at the rate of 26 to 28 Ibs. per acre. The crop can
then be cut the following year. After it has been cut
once, the plant dies.

Trefoil may be sown and utilised in very much the
same way as trifolium. Twenty pounds of seed per
acre is sufficient.

Rape. — If sown in July at the rate of 5 to 6 Ibs.
per acre, the leafage can be grazed off in the autumn.

White Mustard. — This would be sown in July or
August at the rate of 20 Ibs. per acre, and grazed
in autumn.

XV. DIGESTIBILITY OP POODS.

It is important to remember that the solid excrement
represents the undigested part of the food after its
passage through the alimentary canal. The other
part therefore represents the amount which has either
been digested, or, through fermentation in the ali-
mentary canal, has escaped in the form of gas. Neglect-
ing for the moment the possibility of a small amount
being decomposed into gases and escaping in the breath
or otherwise, the difference between the amount of the
nutrients supplied in the food and that found in the
solid excrement represents the amount which has been

96 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

digested. It is then easy to calculate by difference
the amount and proportion of albuminoids, oil, carbo-
hydrates, and fibre digested respectively by the various
classes of farm live stock.

The method adopted for this purpose is briefly
as follows : — For convenience, a male animal is taken
and fed on the experimental food for a week, to get
the animal accustomed to the new diet as well as
the old diet removed from the system. An indiarubber
bag is then placed behind the animal so as to catch the
solid excrement. The food is carefully weighed and
analysed before feeding, and the dung weighed and
analysed by the same method as that employed for
the food ; then by subtraction the percentage of each
nutrient digested in the food can be ascertained.

For very accurate determinations of digestibility
a further precaution is necessary, more especially with
ruminants. Since the food generally ferments in the
paunch, gases (carbon dioxide, marsh gas, hydrogen)
are generated and disappear in the breath. In a
similar manner, food which ferments in the bowels
of farm animals in general often decomposes with
the evolution of gases which escape from the bowels ;
consequently in both cases this part of the food is not
digested, and is therefore lost to the animal. It is only
since the introduction of a respiration chamber1 that the
amount of loss in this way could be ascertained.

1 The respiration chamber is an air-tight compartment which
is used at a few research stations in Germany, where the animal
is placed for short intervals during fattening, etc. The animal is
supplied with air of known volume and composition, and from
time to time it is drawn off and analysed. In this way the gases
which leave the animal are discovered and their amount
ascertained. A respiration chamber has now been installed in
this country at Cambridge, but no results are as yet available.

DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS 97

In this manner a large amount of useful information
with regard to the composition of foods and the digesti-
bility of same has been accumulated. Obviously it is
only the digestible part which is available for mainten-
ance and production, and for this purpose it is advisable
to know that the proportion of digestible albuminoids
is sufficient in the ration.

Individuality in Animals. — One thing which strikes
the experimenter is the difference in results he obtains
from fattening a given number of cattle, sheep, or pigs
on a given ration. Although the individuals which
are being fed on the same ration may be of the same
breed, may even be the same live weight at the
commencement of the experiment, and may look a
very level lot, yet at the close of the experiment the
individual increases in live weight would vary consider-
ably. Take, for example, the recent cattle-feeding
experiments of the Edinburgh and East of Scotland
Agricultural College (Report 31). In Lot I., which was
fed on linseed cake and Bombay cotton cake with
swedes and oat straw for nineteen weeks, the following
results were obtained with three black cattle : —

Bullock.

No. 10
No. 9
No. I

The different capacities of these three cattle for
increasing in live weight during fattening is most
marked, and is due to what is called their " individuality "
or " individual capacity" for fattening. The same thing
applies to horses, sheep, and pigs. There are " good
doers " and " bad doers " in each class.

Further, the amount of food per day of a given

Live Weight
at Commencement.

Gained in
Live Weight.

7 cwts. 3f qrs.

1 60 Ibs.

7 cwts. 3 qrs.

224 Ibs.

7 cwts. I qr.

350 Ibs.

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

ration which a two-year-old fattening bullock can
stand varies with individual animals. One will show
by the appearance of its dung that it is digesting it
satisfactorily, while another will show that some of
the food is passing through its body almost unchanged.
Ruminants and Non-Ruminants. — The following
two tables are compiled from Kellner's figures, and
show the comparative digestibilities of ruminants (sheep
or cattle) as compared with horses and pigs.

Comparative Digestibilities of Nutrients in Various Foods
by Horses and Ruminants (Kellner}.

Field
Beans.

Oats.

Maize.

Lin-
seed
Cake.

Good
Meadow
Hay.

Red
Clover
Hay.

Wheat
Straw.

-ti

Organic matter
Protein .

87
86

88
87

70
76

89
76

90
72

66
81

79
86

58
63

Fat .
Carbohydrates .

83
91

80
76

61
92

52
96

92
78

57
68

29
63

53
64

2*8

Fibre

The above figures show the proportion of each of
the nutrients digested in both concentrated and bulky
fodders.

The chief points to notice are that horses do not
digest fat (ether extract) in foods nearly so well as
ruminants, neither have they the same power of
digesting fibre in bulky foods. Protein and carbo-
hydrates in foods generally are digested just as well by
horses as by ruminants.

DIGESTIBILITY BY FARM ANIMALS

Comparative Digestibility of Nutrients in Various Foods by
Ruminants and Pigs (Kellner).

Clover

Peas.

Maize.

Barley.

Field
Beans.

Brewers'
Grains.

before
Flower-
ing.

beginning
Flower-
ing.

•g

•M

t>0

P-l

ft-i

P-l

•

/o •

Organic matter

Protein .

Fat .

Carbohydrates

Fibre .

—

5«

Pigs digest practically as much protein in con-
centrates as ruminants, although in the bulky foods they
compare less favourably. In the case of fat in foods,
pigs are a long way behind ruminants, although they
appear to digest it fully better than horses ; e.g., with
beans the proportions are 30 per cent, as against 13 per
cent, with horses; with maize, 74 per cent, against
6 1 per cent; and with ground linseed cake, 80 per
cent, against 52 per cent.

In the case of carbohydrates, pigs digest them in
concentrated foods almost as well as ruminants, but in
bulky foods the latter have the advantage.

The pig, however, has not much power of digesting
fibre either in concentrated or bulky foods. Except
with foods very low in fibre, the proportion digested
does not reach 25 per cent. Horses, although non-
ruminants, possess this power to a greater extent than
pigs, on account of their enormously capacious bowels,
including the blind gut (caecum), where bulky foods may

100

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

be temporarily stored and ferment a little, with the
result that the fibre is rendered more digestible ; but
even then the proportion digested falls far short of that
possible with ruminants when both are fed on bulky
fodders.

Effect of Stage of Maturity on Digestibility.—
This can best be illustrated from a hay crop, as it may
be cut and harvested, (i) before it is in flower, (2) when
it is in full flower, or (3) after it has passed full-flower
stage. The effect of cutting and harvesting hay at each
of these three stages on the digestibility, is given in the
following table, taken from Warington : —

Digestion by Sheep of Hay at Different Stages of Maturity.

Date cut.

Proportion of each Digested per 100 Supplied.

Total
Organic
Matter.

Nitrogenous
Matter
(Protein).

Fat.

Soluble
Carbo-
hydrates.

Fibre.

May I4th .
June 9th .
June 26th.

75-8
64-3
57-3

73-3
72-1

55-5

65-4
51-6

43-3

75-7
61-9

55-7

79-5
657
6z*i

The diminution of the proportion of each nutrient
digested as the grass increases in age is very striking,
and shows how difficult it is to generalise as to the
composition and digestibility of hay crops.

Effect of Work. — The effect of work with, say,
a horse, is to increase the respiration considerably.
This means more oxygen is taken into the lungs and
then into the blood, with the result that more oxidation
of the food takes place and more heat is generated in the
body. There is, at the same time, an increased demand
on the food to meet the energy required to enable the

CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECTING DIGESTIBILITY 101

horse to perform work ; hence it is reasonable to suppose
that the harder or more difficult the work is, the greater
will be the amount of food required (within limits). If,
however, a food difficult to digest were given to supply
the energy required for work, a larger proportion of
the available nutrients would be required to overcome
the mechanical difficulties of digestion before there
would be any nutrients available for external mechani-
cal work. Hence the importance of a concentrated
and easily digestible ration when horses are doing
hard work.

Experiments do not show that a larger proportion
of the food is digested when horses are at work ; in
fact, as the labour increases in intensity the reverse is
the case. At the same time, a richer diet should be
given and a larger amount of nutrients fed.

XVI. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN COM-
POUNDING RATIONS.

The general requirements of the animal vary with
the kind of animal, its age, whether it is being kept in
store condition or for purposes of production (meat,
milk, or work). In order to meet these requirements
the animals must be supplied with food ; and in utilising
the artificial foods for this purpose, one should, strictly
speaking, keep in mind the following points : —

(a) The chemical composition and balance of

nutrients.

(b) Digestibility of food used, and the albuminoid

ratio.

advantage.

102 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

(d) Laxativeness of diet.

(e) Its palatability.
(/) Economy.

Composition. — It is obvious that a ration which
is to meet the various requirements of the animal must
be sufficiently rich in nutrient substances (albuminoids,
fat, and carbohydrates). The proportions of each
of these nutrients in the ration is a point of some
importance, seeing that growth in size and the produc-
tion of nitrogenous tissues (flesh, sinew, horny substance,
hair, etc.) can, generally speaking, only be produced
from the albuminoids in the food.

The fat and carbohydrates are quite as good as
albuminoids, in fact better, for the production of heat,
energy, and body fat. Further, the carbohydrates are
much cheaper than albuminoids, which makes it advisable
from a practical point of view to see that the proportion
of albuminoids in the ration should not greatly or
extravagantly exceed that which is necessary for the
production of nitrogenous tissue in the animal body.
Milk is fairly rich in albuminoids, hence milking animals
require a more liberal allowance of albuminoids than
cows which are not milking.

Another very important point is that the "fibre con-
tent" of the concentrated diet should be low, not exceed-
ing 1 5 per cent, in fattening rations, and usually much less.

In practice, the suitability of a ration may be ascer-
tained very approximately from its chemical composition
so far as the balance of nutrients is concerned, and this
method will be employed later on in the compounding
of rations.

Although the balance of nutrients in the ration
may be calculated sufficiently near for practical purposes

CON

CONSIDERATIONS IN COMPOUNDING RATIONS 103

from the chemical composition, yet it does not neces-
sarily follow that the nutrients are capable of being
digested by stock ; hence, when one wishes to balance
a food accurately, it is necessary to take into account the
digestibility of each nutrient in the food. One is then
able by calculation to tell whether the amount and
proportion of digestible albuminoids are sufficient.

Albuminoid Ratio. — The "albuminoid ratio" is
defined as the ratio of the "digestible" albuminoids to
the "digestible" non-albuminoids. Seeing that fat
has a much higher value than carbohydrates for the
production of heat and energy, it is usual to multiply
the fat by 2-3 to get the non -albuminoids on a
comparative basis ; z.e.t I Ib. fat is considered to be
equal to 2-3 Ibs. carbohydrates.

Two examples will give the method of arriving at
the ratio, remembering that only the " digestible " part
is taken in each case. The average digestibilities of
most foods have been ascertained sufficiently near for
this purpose (see p. 45).

I. Linseed cake contains the following " digestible "
constituents: albuminoids, 25 per cent.; oil, 9^ per
cent. ; and carbohydrates, 32 per cent.

Oil x 2.3 + Carbohydrates -Albuminoids/ wil1 ?ive ,the falbu'

^ minoid ratio.

9JX2.3 + 32 -r 25

21.85 + 32 - 25

53^5 -H 25 2.15

Hence the albuminoid ratio is as 1:2-15. In other
words, for every I part of digestible albuminoids
in linseed cake there are 2-15 parts (or the equivalent)
of carbohydrates.

Again, in an ordinary ration for a horse, the calcula-
tion is more involved, as there are several foods mixed

104

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

together constituting the ration ; e.g., with a horse
receiving per day 14 Ibs. oats, 2 Ibs. beans, 18 Ibs. hay,
and 10 Ibs. swedes, we shall need to calculate the
amount present in 14 Ibs., 2 Ibs., 18 Ibs. and 10 Ibs.
respectively. The digestible nutrients in these foods
are as follows : —

Albuminoids.

oil.

Carbohydrates.

per cent.

per cent

Oats

5.1

Beans .

Meadow hay

Swedes

,'„

Fourteen pounds of oats would then contain ,',/,•, th of the
digestible constituents mentioned above ; if, therefore,
the digestible constituents for each food are multiplied
by the number of pounds taken in the ration and
divided by 100, the actual amounts of nutrients in
the ration will be ascertained.

Itation.

Albuminoids.

Oil.

Carbohydrates.

Oats, 14 Ibs.
Beans, 2 Ibs.
Meadow hay, 18 Ibs. .
Swedes

per cent. * Ibs.
14 x 9 = 1-26

2 X 19 - 3-60

18 x 4 = 0-72

IO X 1 = 'O2

PIT cent. *lbs.

i I -5i = o-73

2 X Ij = 002

i8x i = 0-18

IQXyV = O'OI

per cent. * Ibs.

14x45 r= 6-30
2 X 48 = 0-96
18X41 = 7.38

10 x 8 = 0-80

5.60

0-94

15-44

* The division by 100 is only shown by pushing the decimal place two places
forward.

.*. 0.94 x 2.3+ 15.44-7-5.60 will give the albuminoid ratio •

or 2.162 + 15.44 + 5.60 „

or 17.602 + 5.60 „ „

Hence the albuminoid ratio of this ration is as i : 3-14.

PLATE VIII.

A. Scotch Haymaking. — Carting home the Hay with special cart at
Mr John Spiers', Newton Farm, near Glasgow (p. 127).

[Photos by Author.

B. Continental Haymaking. — Carting home Hay with bullock waggon
at Lauchstadt, near Halle, Germany.

PLATE IX.

Between pp. 104, 105.

ALBUMINOID RATIO 105

Generally speaking, a " narrow " albuminoid ratio
indicates a food rich in nutrients, a large proportion
of which is albuminoids ; while a wide ratio indicates
a food low in nutrients. For young or fattening
animals a ration with an albuminoid ratio of i to 3, or
in some cases I to 5, may be taken as supplying
a sufficiency of albuminoids, but for maintenance
this ratio may be widened considerably, say, i to 8 or
i to 10.

It is from this point onward that several very
interesting practical difficulties have to be overcome.

Home-grown Poods the Basal part of Ration. —
Generally speaking, the rotation of crops adopted on
arable land supplies the farmer with large quantities
of straw and roots. Both these foodstuffs are bulky,
and comparatively poor in nutrient constituents. The
sale of these crops would involve a large amount of
labour, and as their sale value is not high, it is usual
to consume crops such as these on the farm by live
stock, in order to convert them into a form (beef and
mutton) which will be much more easily marketed.
Hence the utilisation of these bulky foods in an
economical way must be kept in mind in making up
a ration. Concentrates are in reality only employed
to make up the deficiencies in these bulky foods as
required for the particular purpose.

Ruminants on account of their special power of
dealing with bulky foods (more especially fodder
crops), consume the major part of the straw and
roots on the farm. Horses, however, have fairly con-
siderable powers of digesting these bulky fodder crops
(see p. 98), but pigs have great difficulty in this
direction.

Further, the bulky and fibrous nature of fodder

106 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

crops (straw) throws a considerable amount of internal
work on an animal, since it has to be chewed and mixed
with saliva (masticated), carried along the alimentary
track and dealt with by the stomach, intestines, etc.
The work of the excretory organs is also increased, and
it appears that the nutrients in bulky fodders have not
much value for the production of increase or energy, but
are valuable chiefly for the production of heat in the
animal body. Zuntz showed that with a horse fed
entirely on wheat straw, which is one of the hardest and
most indigestible of straws, that the energy required to
deal with this hard, coarse food was greater than the
energy supplied by the food ; hence the horse ultimately
died.

We have already seen that the production of work
(external energy) and increase in body weight can only
be obtained from the margin of nutrients which are
left after the nutrients have supplied the animal with
the necessary energy to deal with (masticate) the food
in the mouth, as well as along the alimentary track till it
leaves the system. The bulky part of the ration leaves
such a small residue or surplus of digestible nutrients
for production, that it is necessary to add concentrates
to these bulky foods to raise the whole character of
the ration.

This is brought about in the following way : — Con-
centrates are, generally speaking, foods which are rich
in nutrients of high digestibility. The energy required
for mastication, etc., is comparatively small, consequently
there is a large surplus of nutrient material for produc-
tion, and when added to the bulky food they raise the
available surplus for production of each pound of the
ration considerably above that of the original bulky
food,

POINTS IN COMPOUNDING RATIONS 107

The concentrate by itself would not suit the peculiar
digestive system of ruminants, which is intended by
nature to deal with bulky foods. Bulky foods, there-
fore, serve a useful purpose in opening up highly
concentrated foods, thus enabling the digestive juices
to do their work more effectively.

Laxativeness. — Too much stress has probably been
placed in the past on the actual chemical composition of
the food, while what may be called in contradistinction
the " mechanical " composition has been largely over-
looked. By "mechanical" composition, is meant the
ease or difficulty with which foods are masticated and
passed through the alimentary canal. Foods like
pasture grass, roots, linseed cake, bran, etc., pass along
the food canal with comparative ease, and are called
" laxative foods " ; while others like hay, straw, Bombay
cotton cake, and other concentrated foods high in fibre,
only pass slowly or with difficulty, and are called
astringent or " binding " foods. A ration extreme in
either of these ways does not give the digestive organs
a fair chance of doing their duty on the food. Scouring
animals do not usually fatten or increase in live weight
rapidly, nor do animals which are too stiff in the dung ;
a happy medium is eminently desirable, hence a great
thing in making up a ration is to blend it so that it will
pass through the animal at a rate which will enable it
to get the maximum benefit out of the food.

The writer has studied the reports of most of the
cattle and sheep feeding experiments which have been
carried out in recent years in this country, and it appears
fairly obvious that most of the disappointing rations
which have been used have failed on the mechanical
side, i.e., in being too high in fibre and " too binding."
On the other hand, palatable rations comparatively low

108 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

in fibre, and correctly balanced, so far as laxativeness is
concerned, have given much better results than their
chemical composition would lead one to expect, provided
the proportion of albuminoids was not too low.

In practice, the farmer has to use his judgment and
vary the concentrate according to the bulky ration that
is available, e.g.) sheep receiving immature roots and
hay require a binding concentrate like Bombay cotton
cake. The same applies to cows on new grass in spring.
On the other hand, a ration for a bullock may be too
binding, and in this case a laxative concentrate (linseed
cake, etc.) would be necessary.

It is difficult to over-estimate the value of knowing
the percentage of fibre in concentrates when compound-
ing rations, seeing that the fibre depreciates the value of
the particular concentrate for fattening purposes. The
Fertiliser and Feeding Stuffs Act only requires
guarantees to be given by the seller for oil and
albuminoids. This, however, is very good so far, but
the Act would be even more valuable if, in addition,
the fibre content had to be included in the guarantee.
The farmers would then have the necessary particulars
on the invoice for making up rations.

Palatability. — There are some concentrates, e.g. rape
cake, which are rich in nutrients, but, on account of their
insipid taste or unpleasant aroma, are not relished by
stock. The consequence is that the animal does not
eat as much as is necessary, say, for rapid fattening,
and in fact may not improve in condition at all.

On the other hand, if the food is attractive in
flavour and aroma, the animal devours it with avidity,
and consumes, if available, a larger amount of food.
At the same time the flow of digestive juices on the
food is stimulated to a much larger extent, consequently

LAXATIVENESS AND PALATABILITY OF FOODS 109

a larger quantity of food is digested and the animal
benefits accordingly.

The great aim of the feeder is to have all the foods
which he feeds to stock, palatable, and if they are
naturally deficient in flavour or aroma, he must add
treacle, locust beans, etc., to sweeten them, and aromatic
seeds, such as aniseed, fenugreek, etc., to give them an
attractive smell (see pp. 76 and 131).

Economy. — In the making up of rations for farm
live stock, the business farmer will keep in view the
possibility of substituting one class of concentrated
food for another (e.g. gram for beans), as long as the
substitute is cheaper L and is equally suitable so far as
the digestible constituents are concerned. Sometimes a
flavourless, but otherwise good, substitute for a con-
centrate may be utilised provided it is made attractive
by spicing.

Again, hay or grain which is not very good through
being weathered during harvesting, may be utilised
for feeding purposes, provided it is only fed in small
quantities at a time after it has been mixed with other
wholesome foods.

In certain cases, considerable saving might be
effected by chaffing the bulky fodders, and bruising any
grain that may be included in the ration. This, apart
from avoiding waste, reduces the amount of energy
required for masticating the food, thus leaving a greater
surplus of nutrients for production (see p. 140).

1 For rough method of ascertaining whether foods are dear or
cheap, see p. 122.

110 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

XVII. POOD STANDARDS.

The chief art in making up rations is to supply the
animal with a balanced ration which is digestible,
palatable, and sufficiently laxative.

Generally speaking, the basal part of the ration
for horses, cattle, and sheep consists of home-grown
bulky fodders (grass, hay, and straw) and roots.
These are nearly all poor in albuminoids, fat, and
carbohydrates. At the same time the fodder crops
are very high in fibre, hence the need to enrich the
ration for production purposes (beef, mutton, bacon,
milk, work) by adding concentrated foods which are
rich in albuminoids, fat, and carbohydrates, but
usually low in fibre.

(1) The Approximate Method.

The concentrated part of ration is the chief con-
sideration in this method.

Horses. — A full-grown horse at work, receiving a
basal ration of, say, ij stones hay and 4 to 7 Ibs. roots
per day, should have the following conditions fulfilled
in the concentrated part of ration :—

1. It should contain 12 to 16 per cent, albuminoids.

2. It should contain 4 to 5 per cent. fat.

3. It should not, as a rule, contain over 8 per cent.

fibre.

4. The quantity to feed should be approximately

I Ib. per 100 Ibs. live weight.

To test a given ration, multiply the percentages of
albuminoids, fat, and fibre by the number of pounds of
each food in the ration, and divide the total percentages
of each of the nutrients by the total number of pounds
of concentrated food in the daily ration.

FOOD STANDARD FOR HORSES 111

Take, for example, the following daily ration : —

Composition.

Concentrates

in Ration.

Albuminoids.

Fat.

Fibre.

per cent.

Cracked maize, 4 Ibs.

ICft

Bruised oats, 5 Ibs. .

Bran, 3 Ibs.

Bean meal, 2 Ibs.

(a) Calculation of Percentage of Albuminoids in

Concentrated Food —

Maize meal . . 4 Ibs. x io| per cent. = 42

Bruised oats . . 5 „ x n „ =55

Bran . . 3 „ x 14 „ =42

Bean meal . . 2 „ x 25 „ = 50

14 » 189

.'. Percentage of albuminoids = — ? = 13^ per cent.

(b) Calculation of Percentage of Oil in Concentrated Food —

Maize . . .4 Ibs. x 5 per cent. = 20

Oats . . 5 „ x 5 =25

Bran . . 3 „ x 4 „ =12

Beans . . . 2 „ x i^ „ =3

r4 „ _6o

.'. Percentage of oil = — = 4^ per cent.

Maize . . .4 Ibs. x 2 per cent. = 8

Oats . . . 5 „ x 10 ,, =50

Bran . . . 3 „ x 9 „ =27

Beans . . . 2 ,, x 7 „ =14

14 „ 99

.*. Percentage of fibre = — = 7 per cent.
14

112

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

This rather heavy ration for a work-horse meets the
above requirements, and is therefore a " balanced " ration
for a work-horse.

No account is taken of the carbohydrates, as, with
ordinary food-stuffs which satisfy the above require-
ments, it may generally be assumed that they will be
present in sufficient quantity.

Cattle. — Fattening bullocks, dairy cows, or very
young cattle. — Basal ration, straw and roots or hay
and roots, or hay, straw and roots.

(a) Bullocks in early stages of fattening with straw and
roots : concentrated part of ration should contain : —

Albuminoids

Fat

Fibre

. 15 to 20 per cent.
. 4 to 6 „
(not exceeding) 15 „

Feed at the rate of \ to I Ib. concentrates per 100 Ibs.
live weight.

Take for example a daily ration for a two-year-old
bullock weighing 800 Ibs., allowing J Ib. per 100 Ibs.
live weight.

Concentrates in Ration per Head.

Albuminoids.

Fat.

Fibre.

Maize meal . . .2 )bs.
Egyptian cotton cake .2 ,,

4
44

4 Ibs.

In Mixed Ration .

16* %

12%

(b) Later stages of fattening with straw and roots,
concentrated part of ration should contain : —

Albuminoids

Fat.

Fibre

. 20 to 25 per cent.
. 6 to 8 „
(not exceeding) 10 „

FOOD STANDARDS FOR RUMINANTS 113

Feed at the rate of I Ib. concentrates per 100 Ibs.
live weight.

Take for example a daily ration for a two-year-
old bullock (8 to 9 cwts.) : —

Concentrates in Ration per Head.

Albuminoids.

Fat.

Fibre.

Decorticated cotton cake. 3 Ibs.
Egyptian cotton cake . 2 ,,
Maize meal . . . 4 „

123

44
42

27
II
20

24
40
8

9 Ibs.

209

In Mixed Ration .

23* %

6i%

Albuminoids

Fat.

Fibre

. 16 to 20 per cent.

4 to 6 „
(not exceeding) 10 .,

With a cow* weighing 8 cwts., and in full milk (3
galls, per day), the following would be a suitable
daily ration : —

Concentrates in Ration per Head.

Albuminoids.

Fat.

Fibre.

Decorticated cotton cake 2 Ibs.

Bran . . . . 2 „

Ground oats . . • 3 »

Maize . . . . 3 „

sxi

I o Ibs.

174

In Mixed Ration .

17-4%

5-3%

7-o%

The amount of concentrated food required by
milking cows would be \ to \ Ib. for every pound of

114 THI 0CK1 EfiDBI s COMPANION*

yielded per 'lay; ^., - •/,. milk

food per 'lay.

A belt' ;;ive each milk cov/ j to £ lb.

of concentrated food per d ay for every

2 ]}/•„ f' ;,ilk

yielded per day (i.e., i lb. [>cr quart of milk).
K<^ yonn" HHI in fits. — For

'be --.an.

following '.taii'larH would \t<: Mjitabh: for /'/////////
part of ration 5—

AJIyiiininoidf

„

•>re :, '•

Feed i to 2 lb», per JOG ;l)i.

Sheep,— Fattening "tcg»w or "hoggf"
receive hay and roots in addition to concentrates. 1
concentrated foods should same a tioti

as the standards

Allow i II;. for every TOO Ibs, live weight.

•\y lambs would require the same standard for
concentnted food ai reiy ^oung animals^and be fed
at the same rale, viz., i to 2 it, . per 100 Ibs.

Pig Fattening. — For pigs, iis old, rece:

ft gallon of skim milk per day, with a meal :

Albuminoids . . . 10 to j 5 jx;r r •

Oil ... » fl to /; „

Feed 2 to /; rated food per d

•hi.

i'-y ine-al ^o lb->.; and skir/j milk (\ ^allv
red tr, ; ,,-jderfully j^ood ration for

lOOl) STANDAIMJ I OK PK;S

a .six to eight month**' old fat pig. The meal

in tin, case contains albuminoid*, 10 per cent; fat,

md fibre, 5 per cent

With whey tii': proportion of albuminoids in the

.:i ,houM approximate to the higher figure (15

P'-r cent). The addition of pea meal would help to

brin?', about. this result

% The Daniflh Method,

'I'})': Cop':nhaf><:h Kxp':rim':nt. Station ha , <• ,t ablrJi'-'l

ndards which are being used by many of
Hi': "< 'v' .ouatiani in Denmark chiefly for the

of dairy cow» and the fattening of pig»,

The "Danish food standard" 10 i Ib. of (what is

ndard grain, viz,, barley and maize,

'I'h': values of all ordinary foods used are expressed in

r is of the amount which is considered equal to I Ib,

of barley or maize for feeding purposes. After many

!H they regard t.h<: following equivalent amounts

for praMiYal

Equivalent i of i Ib, Barley or Maize (Danith Pood Standard^),

Decorticated cotton cake and earth-nut cake . 0-8 Ji>.

.'1 Hnteed cake . . o<9 „

Wh*;;tf, barley, ar.'l in:»i/'- . , I/O „

Oat, . . , ,

Cummin* (malt »prout») . 1-2 „

' at bran , , '-4 »

Milk . . . (one quart) 2-5 „

• *5 H

Uoiled potato* . . 4/0 „

firewert ' grainf , potatoes , »traw chop or chaff1 5-0 „

• k or buttermilk . , , 6*0 „

^)recn xra»» or clover . , $<o „

Hoot rroji'; or for;i;/<: r.roj/; , , IO»O w

116

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The foods mentioned on the preceding page include
those fed to pigs as well as those fed to dairy cows, and
from the preceding list suitable foods are selected for the
building up of rations approximately on the following
lines : —

"Milking Cows:1— One "Danish standard" is
allowed for every 150 Ibs. live weight of animal; in
addition, one standard for every 3 Ibs. of milk produced
per day, but the foods in the ration are selected in
such a way as to supply a sufficiency of digestible
albuminoids. Take a cow which is 900 Ibs. live weight,
the " food standards and requirements of digestible
albuminoids " would be as follows : —

Daily Milk Yield.

Danish Food Standards
required in Ration.

Minimum Requirements of
Digestible Albuminoids
in Ration.

I gall.

I Ib.

2 „

I*»

3 „

2 „

4 n

»!„

An example will illustrate how to ascertain if a
given ration conforms to this standard. With a cow
giving 3 galls, of milk per day the same ration may
be taken as the one for milk cows (p. 113).

Ration per Head.

Digestible
Albuminoids,
per cent,
in Foods taken.

Digestible
Albuminoids,
in Ibs.
in Ration.

Swedes, 30 Ibs
Hay, 1 74 Ibs
Decorticated cotton cake, 2 Ibs.
Bran, 2 Ibs
Oats (crushed), 3 Ibs.
Maize meal, 3 Ibs.

0-25 per cent.
4-0
36-0

IOO

9.0

7-0

0-075 Ib-
0-700 ,
0-720 ,

0-200 ,

0-270 ,
0-210 ,

Digestible Albuminoids in Ration . . . 2-175 IDS-

DANISH FOOD STANDARDS

117

Ration per Head.

Amount
Equal to One
" Food Standard."

Food Standards
in Ration.

Swedes, 30 Ibs
Hay, 174 Ibs. . . .
Decorticated cotton cake, 2 Ibs.

10 Ibs.

2-5 ,
•8 ,

1-4 ,
i-i ,

10 ,

3
7
2-5

1-4

2-7

3-o

Oats (crushed), 3 Ibs.
Maize meal, 3 Ibs.

Food Standards in Ration . • . .19-6

The requirements according to the Danish standard
for a cow giving 3 galls, of milk per day are : — 16
food standards and a minimum of 2 Ibs. digestible
albuminoids ; hence the above ration is more than
sufficient. It will be noticed that in calculating these
standards the fodder crops and roots are included in
the calculations.

Fattening Pigs. — Weaned pigs are divided into
four groups or classes, according to live weight, viz. : —

1. Under

2. 40 tO

40 Ibs.
60 Ibs.

60 to 1 20 Ibs.
120 to 200 Ibs.

The rations allow for each pig receiving from two
up to about six food standards according to age, and as
skim milk is a very common constituent of Danish fatten-
ing rations, they are made up on the following lines : —

Proportion of each Constituent fn Ration.

Class.

in Ration.

Skim Milk.

Barley Meal, or
its Equivalent
in Meals.

Roots, or
Green Foods.

per cent.

2 to 3

3 to 4

4 to 5

5 to 6

118

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

A pig in class 3 (60 to 120 Ibs. live weight) may
receive a ration of nearly f gall, skim milk, 5 Ibs.
barley meal, and 3 Ibs. boiled potatoes. This will work
out as follows : —

Proportion of

Bation.

Amount Equal
to One
Food Standard.

Food Standards
in Ration.

each Constituent
in Ration on
Food Standard

basis.

Skim milk, 6 Ibs.

1 6 per cent.

Barley meal, 4^ Ibs. .

75 „

Boiled potatoes, 2 Ibs. .

i
a

9 „

The proportion of each food in the ration is very
approximately correct, but we have six food standards
in the ration when there should be beween four and
five ; hence by reducing each food in the ration by
one-sixth, we should have five food standards in the
daily ration. The correct mixture would then be 5 Ibs.
skim milk (J gall.) ; barley meal, 3f Ibs. ; potatoes,
if Ibs.

(3) The Scientific Method.

Kellner^s Standard Rations, per 1000 Ibs. Live Weight.

DIGESTIBLE.

Kind of Animal.

Dry

AVaf f or

J>l£lbt6r.

Albu-

Carbo-

minoids.

hydrates.

Growing cattle (fattening), 6 to
12 months old, and weighing

Ibs.

about 550 Ibs. live weight

3*2

1-0

I3'O

Fattening oxen (full grown)

24 to 32

2-0

o-7

13 to 16

Milking cows, yielding 3 galls.
per day of milk per 1000 Ibs.

live weight ....

27 to 33

2-6 to 3-0

0-6

I2'9toi4«7

Sheep (fattening), full-grown .

24 to 32

1-9

0-7

16-0

Pigs (fattening)

28 to 33

3-3

0-5

25-0

Horses (medium work) . . 21 to 26 1-6

0-6

n-3

KELLNER'S FOOD STANDARDS

119

In this case the body requirements of the animal
have been found by Kellner after his laborious and
exceedingly important work with animal nutrition at
Mochern (Leipzig). Half a dozen standard rations are
given as examples. (See table on preceding page.)

A new element is introduced in this table, namely,
that of the dry matter. Take, for example, the ration
for a dairy cow given on p. 116; then, by reference to
the table on p. 46, it is not difficult to arrive at the
dry matter in a food : —

Ration per Head.

Percentage of
Dry Matter

Pounds of
Dry Matter

in Food.

in Ration.

Swedes, 30 Ibs.

II*

3-45

Hay, 17 J Ibs. .

15-05

Decorticated cotton cake, 2 Ibs

1-84

Bran, 2 Ibs.

1-74

Oats (crushed), 3 Ibs.

2.61

Maize meal, 3 Ibs. .

2-67

Total Dry Matter in Ration . . . 27-36 Ibs.

The weight of digestible albuminoids has been
calculated out on p. 116, and in the same way the
digestible fat and digestible carbohydrates may also
be ascertained. The content of this ration is con-
sequently found to be : —

Nutrients.

lellner's Standard
per 1000 Ibs. Live
Weight. Milk
Yield, 8 galls,
per day.

Actual in Food
for Cow of 900 Ibs.
Live Weight.

Food Required
per 1000 Ibs.
Live Weight
at same rate.

Ibs.

Dry matter .

27 to 33

27-360

30-4

Digestible albuminoids .

2'6 to 3-0

2-175

2-42

Digestible fat

0-6

0-728

o-8l

Digestible carbohydrates

13-9 to 15-3

14-270

15.86

120 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

It will be observed that this ration, which has
satisfied the Approximate method and the Danish
method, is found to be a little too low in digestible
albuminoids when the scientific method is employed.
If, however, the decorticated cotton cake were increased
by \ Ib. per head per day, the digestible albuminoids
would be raised to 2-63 Ibs. ; the whole ration would
then supply the requirements of the Kellner standard.

The farmer will, as a rule, find that the approximate
method, which is much the simplest, will generally be
sufficient for his purpose.

XVIII. VALUATION OP FOODS.

It is very difficult to devise a satisfactory method
of valuing foods, seeing that they vary so much in
composition and digestibility. The value of the food
to the animal must be taken in conjunction with the
value of the manurial residue, if its real value is to
be obtained. Even when all these are taken into
account, and the food valued accurately from its chemical
constituents, there are such important things as palat-
ability, laxativeness, etc., for which it is difficult to fix
a proper value.

The " Food Unit " system values the food from
its chemical composition alone, without considering its
digestibility ; while the second system takes into con-
sideration the food which is retained by the animal
body, and makes allowance for the manurial residue.

(a) Food Unit System. — The method employed in
obtaining the number of " food units " in a food, is by
multiplying the actual percentage of albuminoids and
oil by 2j, and adding these results to the percentage of
carbohydrates. The total then represents the number

VALUATION OF FOODS 121

of food units in the food. E.g.^ linseed cake contains :
albuminoids, 30 per cent. ; oil, 10 per cent. ; carbo-
hydrates, 34 per cent. ; hence : —

30 x 2 \ + 10 x 2 J + 34 = Food units in linseed cake.

75 + 25 +34 =

i34 = „ „

The " value of a food unit," or the " unit value," is
obtained by dividing the price per ton by the number
of food units in the food. E.g., suppose the above
linseed cake could be bought for £9 per ton, the unit

u u £9 .

value would be — 2- = — - = is. 4d.
134 134

One could now value approximately and compare
other linseed cakes by ascertaining the food units they
contain and multiplying this number by is. 4d.

This system may also be used for valuing and com-
paring foods of a similar nature and composition ; e.g.,
decorticated cake and soya bean cake.

Albu- on Carbo- Pood

minoids. hydrates. units.

Decorticated cotton cake . 41x2^ + 9x2^ + 26 = 151
Soya bean cake . . . 43x2! + 7x2^ + 27 = 152

The food units in these two foods are practically equal,
and unless the units in one case are more valuable than
those in the other, the cakes would be of equal value. The
unit value of decorticated cotton cake is approximately
is. 2d., that is, 2d. less than for linseed cake, which
shows that a level " unit value " for all concentrated
foods is not feasible.

Further, foods rich in fibre require much more
energy for digestion, and are consequently less valuable
per food unit for feeding purposes.

A rough idea of whether any particular food is cheap
or dear at present market prices may be obtained by

122 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

putting money values on the albuminoids, oil, and
carbohydrates1 respectively guaranteed in the food
under consideration ; but for this purpose it is
necessary to divide concentrated foods into two
groups, according to their fibre content, viz. : —

Group I. Those containing less than 12 per cent.

fibre (except those with over 40 per cent.

albuminoids).
Group II. Those containing over 12 per cent, fibre

(including those with over 40 per cent.

albuminoids).

Then by allowing the following unit values 2 (which,
by the way, may vary from year to year), viz. : —

Albuminoids. Oil. Carbohydrates.

I. 33. 3d. 33. 3d. is. 3d.

II. 23. gd. 2s. 9d. is. id.

the estimated value per ton will be obtained.

The following examples will show how to apply
this method with, say, linseed cake, oatmeal, decorticated
cotton cake, and dried brewers' grains : —

Group I. Linseed Cake. Oatmeal.

Albuminoids . 30 % at 3/3 = ^4 17 6 15 % at 3/3 = ^2 8 9
Oil . . . 10% at 3/3= 112 6 8 % at 3/3= i 6 o

Carbohydrates 34 % at 1/3= 2 2 6 60 % at 1/3= 315 o

Prices per ton . .^8126 . . . £7 9 9

Group II. Decorticated Cotton Cake. Dried Grains.

Albuminoids . 41 % at 2/9 = ^5 12 9 20 % at 2/9 = ^2 15 o

Oil . . . 9 % at 2/9= i 4 9 7 % at 2/9= o 19 3

Carbohydrates 26%ati/i= i 8 2 42 % at i/i = 2 5 6

Prices per ton . . £8 5 8 . . . £5 19 9

1 The percentage of carbohydrates is not stated on an invoice,
and an average analysis for the food in question will need to
be taken from the average analysis given on pp. 45-47.

2 These prices are for autumn of 1914.

VALUATION OF FOODS 123

When the market price is in excess of the estimated
value the food is generally dear, when below, it is
cheap, provided the condition is good and it is suitably
blended. It will be noticed that this system does not
take any notice of the palatability of a food, and only
indirectly the digestibility, but includes manurial value.

(b) Manurial Residue. — The undigested part of the
food, known as the solid excrement, is fairly rich in
nitrogen, phosphates, and potash, consequently it
has considerable value as a manure for farm crops.
Further, the digested part is only partially retained
by the animal body, which makes the liquid excrement
rich in nitrogen and potash.

These residues have been valued by Hall and
Voelcker in the following table (see pp. 124-26). In
practice the full theoretical manurial value of the residue
is not realised, on acount of leakage, which is, even with
the greatest care, considerable, and in other cases
enormous. An allowance has been made in the last
column of the table for leakage of manurial constituents,
but it is necessary that precautions should be taken to
have an impervious floor, to prevent washing by rain as
well as heating of the manure, if these manurial values
are to be realised.

The net cost of the food for feeding purposes is
therefore the total cost per ton, less the value of the
residue actually retained in the manure.

XIX. PREPARING POODS FOR STOCK.

Several devices have to be adopted by the feeder
of stock to overcome difficulties which arise in his
efforts to supply the stock with a wholesome, palatable,
and at the same time economical ration. Some of
these are as follows : —

124

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

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MANURIAL VALUES OF FOODS

125

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126

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

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PRESERVING FOODS FOR STOCK 127

1. Drying, or Haymaking. — Green foods like grasses
and clovers are made into hay (i.e. dried in air), after
which, with ordinary care, they will keep sweet for one
or more years.

In England it is usual to cut the grass, turn it and
possibly ted it, till sufficiently dry. A side-delivery
rake places it in a row, from which it is made into small
heaps called "cocks," containing \ to I cwt. each. After
a few days it is carted and made into a stack, the
whole operation being concluded in a week or a
fortnight, according to the weather.

In Scotland as soon as the grass is turned and
approximately air-dried, although too green to cart
it is placed in large heaps or " tramp coils " in the field,
each containing 10 to 20 cwts. of hay. In wet districts
a " boss " is placed in the middle to facilitate drying.
After one or two months it is carted and stacked.

The chief difference, although not constant, is that
English hay "sweats" a little, and becomes a nice
brownish yellow colour, while the Scotch hay retains,
more or less, its natural colour.

2. Silage. — Occasionally in Great Britain the weather
is very wet at haymaking time, and any hope of getting
the grass dried with the sun may seem, at the moment,
remote. In such a case, the grass may be cut and
carted at once into a stack, or in some cases a cemented
pit called a silo. The grass settles down very consider-
ably, and becomes dark brown in colour, with a very
strong smell. It is then called silage. Stock, however,
eat it, and it has a rather laxative effect on the system.
Although grass may be preserved in this way, it is
better, where possible, to make it into hay.

In America, green maize is chaffed and blown into
a tall cylindrical building (silo). It is simply trodden

128 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

down with a couple of men, and will then keep for two
years or even more. This silage has a much nicer ap-
pearance than silage made from grass in Great Britain.

3. Chaffing. — This term is applied to the cutting of
hay and straw into very short lengths by machinery.
The resulting chaff or chop is most useful for mixing
with pulped roots and concentrated foods. In this way
the hay and straw go much further, largely because there
is less wasted from the rack or " cratch." Hay of rather
inferior quality can be gradually worked off in this way.

For fattening animals the mechanical energy
demanded from the body to chew, masticate, and pass
these bulky foods along the alimentary canal is
minimised when the hay and straw have been chaffed
in this way. The same thing applies to grinding
concentrated foods.

4. Pulping, fingering, and slicing Roots. — For young
stock as well as for mixing with chaffed hay and straw,
the roots must be reduced to small pieces by machinery.
Pulping cuts the roots into very small pieces, while
fingering cuts the roots into pieces like human fingers.
Slicing means cutting the roots into parallel slices of,
say, half-inch in thickness. Pulped roots are chiefly
used for mixing with chaffed hay and straw ; fingered
roots, although sometimes fed with chaff, are largely
used for sheep ; while sliced roots are fed to cattle
which are unable, on account of teething changes, to
eat or "break" whole roots.

5. Grinding, Rolling, and Nutting. — These terms
refer to different methods of bruising seeds, grain, or
cakes. Grinding reduces the food to a meal, while
rolling simply squeezes it out flat. Meal is preferable
for feeding with chaffed hay and straw. Rolled oats
are better fed to horses in the dry state.

PLATE X.

A. Crop of Green Maize at the MacDonald Agricultural College,
Quebec (p. 127).

[Photos by Author.
B. American Silo?.— Specially constructed to store Maize Silage.

[To face p. 120.

PREPARING FOODS FOR STOCK 129

Cakes may be ground down to a meal, or may be
broken into small pieces or " nuts." In the latter case
the cake is said to be "nutted." Some cake manu-
facturers are making the cake into cakettes, and in a
few cases small "nuts" or cubes of one inch each side;
the great advantage being that it dispenses with
nutting the cakes on the farm.

6. Softening Coarse Poods. — Coarse, hard con-
centrates like undecorticated cotton cakes should be
nutted for a week or a fortnight before being fed to
stock, as the nutted cake absorbs moisture from the air
and becomes very much softer. Apart from this, nails
may sometimes be detected and removed before feeding.

Hay and straw chop, wheat chaff, and oat chaff may
be mixed with pulped roots, and possibly water added.
The mass is left for at least half a day to enable the
moist roots and water to soften the coarse straw, and
later bring about slight fermentation, so as to make
the ration more attractive to stock.

Inferior foods are often used up in this way, the
food being made attractive with treacle, locust-bean
meal, or other condimental foods (see p. 76).

7. Steeping. — Many folks believe that if con-
centrated foods are steeped in water and fed to milking
cows in the form of a thick gruel or "crowdy," that
the yield of milk will be increased. This may be the
result for a short time after the commencement, but
experiments at Offerton Hall, County Durham, do
not show that this method of preparing the food is
justified by results.

It is not advisable to give either wheat or barley
in the raw state to horses; in fact, wheat is often blamed
for giving horses "fever of the feet" (laminitis). If,
however, these foods have been previously steeped,

130 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

they can be fed to horses as part of the ration without
much fear.

For calves the gruel fed to them may be made by
steeping the meals in cold water for half a day before
feeding, instead of scalding it and feeding almost
immediately.

8. Cooking or Steaming. — This is applied to foods
which have either been steamed or treated with hot water.
It has the effect of softening the food, and often improving
the palatability. Experiments do not appear to show
that cooked food is more digestible than uncooked,
although it may be more readily eaten by stock.

With horses, foods which have been boiled (beans,
barley, linseed) or treated with boiling water and made
into a mash (bran), are used in the winter months to
facilitate the casting of the coat The same foods may
be used as occasional laxatives.

For pigs, potatoes may be boiled or steamed and
mashed up with meals, so as to make an attractive feed.

Cake manufacturers generally cook or steam the
foods before they press them into cakes for cattle
feeding. Calf meals are often made into gruels with
boiling water before being served to young calves ;
those calf meals containing ground linseed cake should
be moistened and stirred with a little cold water before
adding boiling water, otherwise the gruel is apt to form
into lumps and the inside of the lumps remain uncooked.

9. Warming foods in cold weather may have a
rather considerable effect, seeing that all cold food
taken into the system must be heated up to the
temperature of the body at the expense of the food ;
further, the effect of a sudden chill on the system of
stock generally does not tend to improve the health.
There appears to be ground for believing that in cooked

PREPARING FOODS FOR STOCK 131

foods or gruels fed warm, any benefit derived is more
due to their being fed warm than to the actual cooking.

10. Condiments.— These are generally vegetable
substances which give flavour and often aroma to
unpalatable foods, thus making them acceptable to
stock. Appetising foods appear to increase the flow
of the digestive juices, and encourage stock to eat a
larger quantity than they would otherwise do. In
fattening cattle this is very important, since, generally
speaking and within certain limits, the more food the
animal can be induced to eat, the quicker it will fatten,
and some saving will have been effected on the food,
more especially with regard to the maintaining of
the body temperature at approximately 40° F. above
atmospheric temperature for a shorter period than
would otherwise have been the case.

In the case of horses doing hard work, they may
not eat a sufficient quantity of unattractive foods to
enable them to perform their daily work, consequently
they lose flesh, but with the addition of some condimental
food they may often be induced to eat sufficient food
each day to keep them fit and trim for the work.

The same argument could be applied to young
animals which are growing rapidly. Hence for rapid
growth, fattening, and for work, even with concentrated
but possibly tasteless or unpalatable foods, it is advis-
able and often necessary to add spices to the ration to
make it more appetising.

With inferior foods, such as hay which has. been
weathered and probably gone slightly mouldy, it is
very necessary to add spices or condiments to disguise
the flavour. Theoretically such hay should not be fed,
but in practice it is often necessary to use hay up
in this way.

132 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Condiments and condimental foods are only used
in sufficient quantity to make the other concentrated
foods attractive. They may consist of one substance,
or a mixture from several sources ; e.g., broken (kibbled)
locust beans, ground locust beans, malt coombs
(cummins), treacle, and possibly oatmeal and oat
hulls, are all single substances which are commonly
used. Locust beans and treacle sweeten foods con-
siderably, while cummins and oatmeal give a pleasant
aroma.

Condimental mixtures may contain several in-
gredients which stimulate the flow of saliva and diges-
tive juices, and to some extent purify the blood. The
following would be a fairly typical and cheap J cwt.
mixture : —

Sulphur ..... 4 Ibs.

Saltpetre . . . . 4 „

Common salt . . . . I „

Fenugreek (powdered) . . . . 2 „

Gentian ( „ ) . . i „

Aniseed ( „ ) . i „

Ginger ( „ ) . . i „

Locust-bean meal , . . . 14 „

Maize meal . . . . . 28 „

56 Ibs.

XX. FARM HORSES.

The type of draught horse which is at the same
time most suitable for work and most valuable when
the horse is to be sold, is one which possesses a good
constitution, a big massive body, with sound legs and
feet. The horse should have good action, clean flat
bones, and its legs should be attached to the body

FARM HORSES 133

and shaped in such a way as to stand severe work.
In addition, horses affected with roaring, grunting,
shivering, cribbing, and similar defects should be
avoided.

Undoubtedly the breeding of the animal has a
great part to play in securing an animal of this type,
especially when one remembers that so many defects
like sidebone, ringbone, shivering, etc., are hereditary ;
but what concerns us chiefly at this point is the feeding
of horses from birth to maturity, in such a way as to
secure size, substance, and avoid injuring the legs by
careless feeding ; in fact, muscular development in young
horses is all-important.

Brood Mares. — It is usual to commence the mare
breeding at about three years old, the period of gesta-
tion extending over eleven months. Pregnant mares
require plenty of fresh air and exercise, and a fairly
liberal diet, which is sufficiently rich in albuminoids and
bone-forming materials (phosphates and lime) to support
and develop the foetus. Cold spring water should not,
generally speaking, be given to mares in foal, as well
as any foods that are liable to produce flatulency or
colic, e.g., bean meal, raw potatoes, etc.

Unless the mare is out at grass at foaling time,
she will require a fairly laxative diet, e.g., bran mashes,
etc., so as to get her bowels working fairly freely, and
thus facilitate foaling. If the mare is to foal in a loose-
box, it should have been previously cleaned out and
disinfected, so as to free the walls and floors from the
germs which are responsible for navel ill or joint felon ;
in fact, the navel should be disinfected and tied
immediately after foaling with string which has been
previously soaked in a disinfectant.

Grass is the natural food for milk, but if this is

134 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

insufficient or not available, it will be necessary
to gradually substitute the bran mashes at foaling
time with other concentrated foods, which will in-
crease the flow of milk, such as ground oats, maize
meal, bran, bean meal and linseed cake. Mangels,
swedes, or forage crops (vetches, etc.) would be most
useful along with some nice sweet hay. If roots are
scarce, treacle may be used on the hay crop.

The Foal. — As soon as the foal is strong enough to
stand up, it may be necessary to assist it in getting its
first drink of milk. Shortly after this drink it is usual
for the bowels to work.

If the foal is persistently costive, it would be
necessary to give the mare a more laxative diet, e.g.,
bran mashes, roots, forage crops, etc., while in extreme
cases the foal may be given a tablespoonful of castor
oil.

Mare's milk is poor in albuminoids (2 per cent.)
and fat (ij per cent.), but rich in sugar (5j per cent),
hence for orphan foals cow's milk may be used, pro-
vided it is made to approximate to the composition
of mare's milk. This can be done by taking two-thirds
cow's milk and one-third water, adding one or two
teaspoonfuls of sugar for every pint of the mixture of
milk and water.

In Norfolk, after foals are two weeks old they
are sometimes fed in addition to their mother's milk
with skim milk, boiled linseed, and bean meal,
getting by weaning time (six months old) probably
as much as 2 galls, milk and 3 to 4 Ibs. mixed meals
per day.

The Young Horse. — The great thing to keep in mind
at this time is to encourage the production of hard flat
bone, sound legs and feet ; but if the foal is kept in

FEEDING YOUNG HORSES 135

close boxes, standing on heating manure and liberally
fed, there is great danger that this ideal will not be
realised. Without doubt the best way is to leave the
young horses out in the fields altogether, provided they
can run into a shed at will when the weather is bad,
as well as to receive their daily supply of hay, cake,
and corn. There is no finer concentrated food for
young stock than a mixture of 3 parts crushed oats,
2 parts bran, and I part linseed cake, given at the
rate of i to 2 Ibs. per 100 Ibs. live weight. With this
open-air life the young horses get plenty of exercise.
Every effort should be made to expand the heels of the
young horse's feet and develop the frog. To do this, it is
necessary to bring the frog in contact with the ground,
so that the pressure on the frog will tend to expand
the heels. Careful shoeing is most important when
the young horse is old enough to have shoes on.
If the shoe is hinged at the toe, so as to move laterally
at the heels, it will encourage the heels to expand.
The concentrated part of the ration should be rich in
albuminoids, so as to develop as much as possible
the muscular part of the young horse. The horse
would be ready for work at about two to three years
of age.

Work-Horses. — Generally speaking, the ration of
horses doing fast work should be richer in albuminoids
and less bulky than that which would be required for
those doing slow work. When the horses are not at
work the quantity of concentrated food given may be
considerably diminished. Inferior foods should only
be fed in small quantities at a time, along with com-
paratively large quantities of wholesome foods, and
changes of diet should always be made gradually.

It will now be helpful, in compounding rations

136 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

for horses, to discuss the various suitable foods
and the particular form in which these should be fed.

Hay and Straw. — Horses much prefer the stronger
stemmed grasses (rye grasses and timothy, etc.), and
clovers when made into hay, than the softer meadow
hay. Old meadow hay, however, is preferred by some
for hunters.

New hay which is heating (i.e. in the sweat) should
not be fed to horses at all, if it can be avoided, other-
wise it is almost sure to cause their legs to swell. Hay
which has been heavily manured with nitrate of soda
adversely affects the kidneys.

Horses receiving straw as well as hay are con-
sidered to " keep better in their wind," and stand hard
work better than those fed on hay alone. The cost of
long food can therefore be somewhat cheapened by
including straw.

If the hay and straw are chaffed and mixed with
meals, they can be made to go further, partly because
less is wasted. Inferior hay may be spiced, so as to
get the horses to eat it readily.

Oats. — New oats should be carefully fed, as they
have a tendency to make horses' legs swell. Young
horses and " bolters " should have oats crushed or rolled,
in order that they may digest them better. The
former have difficulty in grinding whole oats during
the time their teething changes are taking place.
Bruised oats are more economical to feed than whole
oats, due partly to men feeding them chiefly by
measure. It is a very wasteful plan to give a horse
more than it can clean up each time. The feed of
oats should not be given immediately before watering,
otherwise the coarse hulls may be washed into the
bowels, thus causing irritation and colic.

PLATE XL

A. " Speed the Plough."
It takes a pair of " good " horses to plough in the Carse of Gowrie

[Thotos by Author.

Carting a good crop of Oats at Chesham Lodge, Great Eccleston,
Gr.rstang, Lanes.

PLATE XII.

A. " Lady Manifred " at the Edinburgh Show.
A fine type for fast work.

[Photos by Author.

B. Shoeing Competition at the Valletts, near Hereford.
Good shoeing is as important as good feeding.

[Betiveen pp. 136 and 137.

FEEDING WORK HORSES 137

It is usually considered that horses which grind
down whole oats and fodder crops for themselves stand
severe work better than those receiving bruised oats
along with chaffed hay and straw.

Barley. — Not very suitable ; should not be fed unless
steeped or boiled.

Wheat. — Must be fed with caution, as it is so often
blamed for giving horses fever of .the feet (laminitis).

Peas and Beans. — These foods are rich in albu-
minoids, consequently they have the power of
developing and strengthening the muscles, which is all-
important for horses doing hard work. For fast work
they are especially useful, and their poverty in fat
makes them all the more suitable for this purpose.

They may be included in the ration to the extent
of 2 to 3 Ibs. per day, but horses receiving them should
be regularly exercised if not at work, otherwise they
may become too lively.

Bean meal is a rather sticky food when moistened
with water, and needs to be mixed with chop or bulky
concentrates like bran or dried grains, to open it up.
If fed in too large quantities it may cause flatulency or
colic.

Maize. — A useful food, but is very heating on
account of its comparative richness in fat (5 per cent),
and should not be fed alone. It is best used in combina-
tion with oats, bran, peas, beans, or dried grains, up
to 6 Ibs. per day. For slow work the proportion of
maize in the mixture should be higher than for fast
work. It is either fed as a meal or cracked.

Bran. — This bulky concentrate is extremely useful
for mixing with bean meal, maize, oats, etc.

When made into a mash with hot water it has a
laxative effect, and it is a common practice on some

138 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

farms to give horses bran mashes at week ends. This
is useful, especially when the horses have had high
feeding through the week. It is not wise to mix ground
oats with a bran mash and feed at once, as the mash
travels through the system comparatively quickly and
may carry some of the rough hulls of the oats into the
bowels before they have got properly softened, possibly
causing colic. Boiled linseed, boiled beans, or boiled
barley may be used in the same way as bran mashes,
especially at times when the horse is casting its coat.

Some of the best farmers have ceased to give horses
mashes at week ends, as they consider it better to give
them two to three tablespoonfuls per head daily of
linseed oil on the chop food. In this way there is less
risk than when the horse receives big doses of the
laxative food (bran mashes) at week ends only.

Roots. — Roots are very useful for keeping the bowels
in working order. Carrots are the most suitable roots
for horses, next come swedes. Potatoes are apt to
cause colic (flatulency) unless carefully and sparingly
fed. It is best to feed roots regularly to work-horses
to the extent of 3 to 10 Ibs. per head per day.

Suitable Rations for Horses.

The table on the opposite page shows typical daily
rations of concentrated foods1 for farm-work horses which
weigh on an average between 1200 and 1300 Ibs. each,
keeping in mind the following "standard" with concen-
trated food: albuminoids, 12 to 16 per cent. ; fat, 4 to 5
per cent. ; fibre (not exceeding), 8 per cent. ; and
allowing I Ib. concentrated food for every roo Ibs. live
weight of horse.

1 Farmers wishing to make up similar rations of concentrated
foods should refer to special table of analyses on p. 188.

RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES

139

Ration 2 is very low in fibre, and would be very
suitable for feeding to horses receiving liberal allow-
ances of oat straw in the long food. Ration 4 would
do very well when horses were getting hay and
straw. Linseed cake or linseed oil or roots may
be added as required, to make the ration sufficiently
laxative.

Daily Ration of
Concentrated Food.

Average Composition of Mixture.

Albuminoids.

Fat.

Fibre.

per cent.

8 Ibs. oats . .\
2 Ibs. maize . . >-
2 Ibs. beans . .J

8 Ibs. maize . . "1

2 Ibs. bran . . i-

13!

2 Ibs. gram . .J

6 Ibs. maize . .^
2 Ibs. beans . . |

3 Ibs. dried grains . I
I Ib. sharps , .J

2 Ibs. oats . .^
2 Ibs. sharps .
4 Ibs. maize . . !-

2 Ibs. bran
2 Ibs. gram . .J

"Short" v. "Long" Feeding.

The question is often asked whether it is worth
while to chaff the hay and bruise the corn for horses.
It is now generally admitted that it is much more
economical to adopt the " short feeding " method ; but
in the case of horses which can deal with their food
in the whole state, they will stand hard work better
than those receiving chaffed hay and bruised grain.

HO THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The two examples given below will show the economy
of "short" feeding.

(a) The London Tramway Company had at one
time 6000 horses. These were divided into two lots
of 3000 each. Lot I. received crushed oats, hay, and
straw chop, while Lot II. had their food in the natural
state. The horses in each lot were doing the same
class of work, and in spite of Lot II. getting a heavier
ration, the advantage was with Lot I. ; e.g. —

Ration, Lot 2. Ration, Lot II.

1 6 Ibs. crushed oats. 19 Ibs. whole oats.

7^ „ chopped hay. 13 „ long hay.
2^ „ cut straw.

It was found that the " short " ration saved £60
per day on 3000 horses over that fed in the natural
state. The total saving for the year on 6000 head
was £22,300, making an average saving of £4, 75. 8d.
per head in favour of "short feeding."

(U) Messrs Stirling Bros., Darlingfield, Kelso, kept
careful records of the amount of food consumed by
five pairs of farm-work horses for two consecutive
years. During the first year the hay was fed in the
long state, and the grain unbruised ; while for the
second year the hay was chopped and the grain
bruised. The quality of concentrated food given per
day varied in both cases with the work done ; e.g.,
for the ordinary farm work, three feeds were given
per day, during very busy times four feeds, while on
Sundays only two feeds per day were given.

During the three summer months each year when
the horses were out at grass, they received very little
corn, hence the following average daily rations are
only for forty weeks of the year, and have in fact

EFFECT OF CHAFFING AND BRUISING FOOD 141

been calculated from the bulk quantities used each
year: —

Whole Feed ( 1st Year). Chop Feed (2nd Year).

22 Ibs. oats (whole). 18 Ibs. crushed oats.

1 8 Ibs. hay (long) 7 Ibs. cut hay.

10 to 12 Ib. swedes. 10 to 12 Ibs. swedes.

Wineglassful linseed oil. Wineglassful linseed oil.

2 Ibs. beans during heavy work.

Oat straw, ad lib.

The total quantities consumed in each of these
years, disregarding the linseed oil and roots, which
were the same in both cases, were as follows : —

Whole Feed. Chop Feed.

10 horses for 40 weeks. 10 horses for 40 weeks.

170 qrs. oats (356 Ibs. per 140 qrs. oats, at iSs. per

qr.), at i8s. . . .£153 qr ..... .£126

22 tons hay, at ^3 per ton 66 9 tons hay, at ,£3 . . 27

i ton beans, at £7, los. 7^

Oat straw (estimated) . 1 5
Power and extra labour . 5

The cost of food, therefore, was very approximately
£40 per year less for the chop feed, which means an
average saving for the year of nearly £4. per horse.
Mr Stirling also adds that the horses kept their con-
dition through the busy part of the year on the farm
with the chop feed, but in previous years had always
gone down in condition on the ration consisting of
" long hay and whole oats."

(c) Mr George B. Shields, Dolphingston, near Edin-
burgh, considers that he saves considerably more than
£4 per head per year through feeding the hay and

142 THE STOCK FEEDER'S COMPANION

straw cut and oats bruised. The proportions he used
were 12 sacks of oats to 10 cwts. of hay and oat
straw.

Watering. — The safest plan is to give water to
horses before the feed of corn, as there is some danger
of the unsoftened coarse hulls of oats or similar foods
getting washed into the bowels, and there causing
colic, if the horse is watered immediately after the feed
of oats.

When it is inconvenient to give the water before
the feed, watering should be delayed for, say, half an
hour, so that the food may have time to soften and get
acted on by the gastric juice in the stomach, before
it is carried on into the bowels.

It is also very risky to give horses cold spring
water when they come up very hot and tired ; in
fact, a large quantity of water at atmospheric tem-
perature, which is much less risky, is scarcely advis-
able under these conditions, as it may give the
horse colic through the sudden chilling of the
system. A much safer plan is to give, say, half a
pailful of water with the chill taken off, as soon
as the horse comes up ; then after it has had time
to cool down, it may be allowed to have its fill of
water.

Horses doing fast work, such as trotting or hunting,
should have the quantity of water strictly limited before
starting off, otherwise they will be burdened with the
water, and perspire very freely.

Cost of Keeping a Farm-work Horse for a Year.

It is a very common thing to give horses simply
oats for the concentrated feed for ordinary work, and

COST OF FOOD FOR HORSES 143

to add beans for hard work, hence the following rations
are taken : —

Summer Ration — ist June to 3ist August (thirteen
weeks) — i bus. oats per week, grazing on pasture, and
cut green food in stable.

Winter Ration — ist September to 3ist May (thirty-
nine weeks) — 2 bus. oats, \ bus. beans, I cwt. hay in
addition to roots, per week.

Summer Cost for Thirteen Weeks —

13 bus. oats, at 2s. 6d. . . £i 12 6

13 weeks' grazing, at 2s. . . .160

13 „ cut fodder, at 35. . . I 19 o

- £4 i? 6
Winter Cost for Thirty-nine Weeks—

78 bus. oats, at 2s. 6d. . . . ^9 15 o

9| „ beans, at 45. . . .1190

39 cwt. hay, at 33. . .5170

Roots and condiments '. . .0100

18 i o

TOTAL COST OF FOOD PER YEAR . . ^22 18 6

Blacksmith, say 303. per year . . . i 10 o

Repairs to gears (saddler), say 2os. . . i o o

Depreciation (very variable), say 505. . . 2 10 o

Veterinary surgeon and risk, say 205. . . i o o

Interest, 5 per cent, on £40 capital . . 200

COST OF KEEPING HORSE PER YEAR . ^30 18 6

It may be taken that the cost of keeping a pair
of farm-work horses for a year is from .£50 to £60.
The farmer may put down £100 as being very approxi-
mately the cost of keeping a good waggoner or hind,
and a pair of horses.

Score Card for Shire or Draught Horses.

The following "student's" score card was specially
drawn up by the writer for use in the winter

144 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

School of Agriculture of the Herefordshire County
Council : —

Max.
Points.

1. Height of horse at withers in hands (estimated)

2. Amount of bone on fore leg in inches (estimated)

3. Age, from its teeth, to nearest half-year .

General Appearance, 20 points —

4. POWERFUL— Broad and massive body, low set

5. ACTIVE — Action to be noticed walking as well as trotting

6. HEIGHT — according to age

Legs and Feet, 28 points —

(N.£. — Unless an animal secures half maximum points for
legs and feet, it need not be considered further.)

7. FEET — Shape, size, and quality of horn.

8. Quality of bone and feather

9. FORE PASTERNS AND JOINTS— up to elbows .

10. HIND PASTERNS AND JOINTS— up to lower thigh .

Head and Neck, 8 points —

11. HEAD

12. NECK — Muscular, well-arched, fitting neatly on shoulders
Shoulders, 8 points —

13. Long and sloping — fitting well on to the body
Body, 20 points —

14. CHEST — Deep and wide, giving large heart-girth .

15. RlBS — Long, and well-arched from back

1 6. BACK — Short and broad

17. LOIN — Broad and strong ....

Hind Quarters, 1 6 points —

18. Long and Broad. Tail well set on

19. UPPER AND LOWER THIGHS — well developed

The following points of a typical Shire horse are
given to guide students in score-carding : —

Shire Horse.

*i. Height of horse, about 17 hands.
2. Bone — About n inches below knee and 12 inches below hock.

* The numbers to explanatory notes correspond to foregoing table.

PLATE XIII.

[To face p. 144.

SHIRE OR DRAUGHT HORSES 145

*3. Age by Teeth — Has full mouth of " temporary " teeth at two
years and of "permanent" teeth at five years of age.
Temporary incisors have a neck, and are whiter and
smaller than the permanent incisors. Temporary incisors
are cast about six months before the permanent teeth
are full up and in wear. Horse "aged" after eight
years old.

At about three years old, horse has " central " pair of per-
manent incisors up and in wear.

At about four years old, horse has "lateral" pair of per-
manent incisors up and in wear.

At about five years old, horse has "corner" pair of per-
manent incisors up and in wear.

At about six years old, the " mark " begins to disappear out
of " central " pair.

At about seven years old, the " mark " begins to disappear out
of " lateral " pair.

At about eight years old, the "mark" begins to disappear
out of " corner " pair.

At eleven years old, Galvayne's groove appears on the side
of the corner teeth, just below the gum.

At fifteen years, the groove has extended about half-way
down the corner teeth.

At twenty years, this groove extends full length of corner
teeth.

At twenty-five years, the groove is only seen on the
lower half of the corner teeth, i.e., it has grown half-way
out.

At thirty years, the groove has practically disappeared.

4. Powerful — Indicated by broad, deep, and massive body on

short, muscular legs.

5. Action — Straight and level — no rolling ; good walker, with a

bold and free trot.

6. Size — To be judged from age, as indicated by teeth.

7. Feet — Wide, open at heels, free from suspicion of flatness ;

horn of good quality.

8. Bone and Feather — Bone, clean and fat. Hair, luxuriant

and silky, neither wiry nor woolly.

* The numbers to explanatory notes correspond to foregoing table.

146 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

*9. Fore Legs — Big and massive. Pasterns, sloping but not too
long. Knees, squary and large. Arms, strong and
muscular ; tendons and ligaments well developed.

10. Hind Legs — As far as applicable same as fore legs. Hocks,
should be big and bony ; but clean, fairly close together
when horse is standing, and especially so when trotting.

n. Head — Masculine appearance; intelligent. Disposition —
Spirited.

12. Neck — Strong and muscular, well arched, sloping gradually

on to shoulders.

13. Shoulders— Long and sloping ; fitting well on to body.

14. Chest— Deep and wide, with good heart-girth.

15. Ribs — Should be long, and well arched from back.

1 6. Back — Short and broad.

17. Loin — Broad and strong.

18. Hind Quarters — Wide, long and massive. Tail well set on.

19. Upper and Lower Thighs — Well developed.

Shire Mare.

The mare generally differs from the horse in being smaller
(about 1 6 hands), feminine in appearance, with docile dis-
position and placid temper.

Body should be slightly longer, to give room for foal.

Both mare and horse should be sound and possess a good
constitution.

* The numbers to explanatory notes correspond to foregoing table.

XXI. FATTENING CALVES FOR VEAL.

Veal is the flesh of the young fat calf, and has
long been a favourite article of diet. It is produced
largely in the neighbourhood of big towns, and on
this account is found to a much larger extent in
England than in Scotland, where the number of large
towns is comparatively small. Another important
reason is that in Scotland, where so many young
bullocks are fed off in cattle courts, there is a large
demand for young calves which it is intended to fatten

VEAL PRODUCTION 147

off at about two years old, consequently prices are
often given for calves a few days old, which will pay
the breeder better than that obtainable after vealing
them, especially if he has another important outlet for
the milk. In fact, the conditions which determine
whether calves should be vealed or not, are — cheap
calves, surplus milk^ and a good price for veal. With
these conditions fulfilled, vealing can proceed either
by allowing the calves to suck their dams or by
hand-feeding.

(1) The Natural Way. — This consists in allowing the
cow to suckle the calf, and it is thus that the finest quality
of veal is produced. The calf is fed entirely on new
milk, and obtains it direct from the cow in small quan-
tities at a time, and as often as nature demands it. The
suckled calf requires very little attention, and on this
account the system is often adopted in practice. At first
the newly born calf is unable to take all the milk, and the
surplus will need to be removed. This may be done
either by hand, or by allowing another bigger calf
which is getting an insufficient supply for rapid
fattening, to clean the udder out once or twice a day.
With deep milkers, it may be necessary to give each
cow a couple of calves from the beginning. These
would have sufficient for the first few weeks, after
which it might be necessary to remove one, or allow it
periodically to suck another cow, in order to keep them
both fattening rapidly. This system is not so suitable
for cows which are kept for dairy purposes, as it
unsettles them, and unless the cows are carefully
stripped each day, the annual yield of milk will be
considerably diminished.

(2) Hand-feeding. — This system is especially suited
to dairy farms in spring, as there is often a surplus of

148 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

milk available at this time. The young calf can be
given as much of its mother's milk as it requires, and
that which remains may be given to other calves which
need a little extra to bring them along rapidly. Dr
Gillespie wrote a few years ago : " Hand-feeding requires
skill, and above all careful management and unremit-
ting personal superintendence. The person in charge
must be thoroughly reliable, and very painstaking, and
the food must be given with scrupulous care and
regularity." These are weighty words, and it will be
instructive to look at some of the points in detail which
make for successful calf-feeding,

The Calf Box. — The preparation of the calf box
previous to the introduction of the calf is all-important,
because, unless this point is attended to, there is great
danger of white scour, or similar diseases, attacking
the calves and spoiling the results. The box should
therefore be cleaned out, the floor disinfected, and the
walls lime-washed. The ventilation should be thorough,
in order to secure a gentle current of fresh air through
the box. Light in the boxes is also good, provided
it is not too strong. With these conditions fulfilled —
namely, light, fresh air, and cleanliness — the calf may
be safely introduced on to a comfortable bed of clean
straw. Quietness is essential for rapid fattening, and
unless each calf has a separate box, they should be tied
up by the neck sufficiently short to prevent them
reaching their neighbours. In the north of England
they are often fastened between two stakes, to prevent
the calves licking their coats ; while in Holland they are
kept in small, dark boxes, with a round hole cut in the
door, and a cover over it. When this cover is removed,
the calf makes for the light, and receives its ration of
milk for the time being.

VEAL PRODUCTION 149

Pood. — The food used in the production of veal
should be capable of giving a nice, whitish coloured
flesh ; and no more suitable food has been found than
milk, the only drawback being that it is an expensive
food, especially where there is a demand for it for
human consumption. When eggs are cheap, a raw
egg is sometimes switched in the milk ; these are also
fairly expensive for this purpose. It is therefore
quite natural from an economic point of view that
milk or cream substitutes, such as linseed jelly, ground
linseed cake made into a gruel, or cod-liver oil, should
be used ; but the difficulty is, that when used most of
these are apt to darken the colour, or otherwise
diminish the value of the veal. The old practice of
frequently bleeding the calves to whiten the flesh is
now discontinued, and most folks consider that the
lump of chalk which is sometimes placed in the manger
is more for the purpose of correcting acidity in the calf s
stomach, than for whitening the flesh. After the calf
gets two or three months old, the flesh gradually loses
in colour, and it is not advisable to keep calves longer
than this for veal ; in fact, seeing that the best veal is
produced by milk, and that milk is an expensive food, it
is imperative, from a business standpoint, to veal calves
as rapidly as possible. A little buttermilk may be used
to advantage, as will be pointed out later on.

The Art of Feeding. — Great care has to be
exercised in the hand-feeding of calves during the first
few days of their lives ; the same thing also applies to
calves which have been bought in. In the first place,
the milk should always be given direct from the cow,
as it contains the animal heat, and has not undergone
any changes in composition. A calf often drinks more
than is good for it during the first day or two, if given

150 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

as much as it will take ; then about the third day it is
apt to turn sickly, scour, and refuse to take satisfactorily
for a time. This gorging of the calf's stomach with
milk often brings on "scouring," which might have
been avoided had the quantity been restricted. During
the first day, a pint each time, three times a day, is
quite sufficient ; and with an average Shorthorn calf of
about 88 Ibs. live weight at birth,

i ! galls, of milk per day by the end of the first week,

2 galls, per day by end of the second,

2\ galls, per day by end of the third, and

3 galls, per day by end of the fourth,

is as much as the calf can economically use.

As newly drawn milk is slightly alkaline in reaction,
it is not uncommon for the appetite of the calf to lose
its sharpness towards the third or fourth weeks when
receiving a liberal supply of milk. The writer found
it a distinct advantage to add to the sweet milk a little
buttermilk, a small quantity at first, increasing it to
about i part of buttermilk to 10 parts of sweet milk.
This was begun when the calves were a fortnight old,
and had the effect of sharpening their appetites, with
the result that the increases obtained during its use
sometimes amounted to over 20 Ibs. per week. The
buttermilk has no injurious effect on the quality of the
veal, and calves fed on milk with a little buttermilk
added, often scale heavier weights than one would
anticipate from their apparent size.

Another point to bear in mind is that frequent
feeding at regular intervals is a decided advantage.
Average Shorthorn calves, fed three times a day, may
be made T 50 to 160 Ibs. (i i stones) live weight and ready
for the butcher by the time they are a month old ; while

ART OF FEEDING CALVES 151

with calves fed twice a day, it will take an extra week,
and even then they will scarcely be as heavy as those fed
three times a day. To put it another way, by feeding
three times a day, about 9^ Ibs. milk give I Ib. of
increase, while with feeding twice a day, it will take
roj to ii Ibs. of milk to give the same result. The
extra week taken to fatten is also a consideration
with veal in England, because as soon as Easter is past,
one is generally faced with a falling market ; and with
two equally good calves, one sold at Easter, and the
other a week after, the difference in price might
possibly be id. less for each pound of veal, which
means about 8s. less for a calf weighing 160 Ibs. live
weight.

It is important to know how much the milk used
for vealing calves would bring in if made into cheese
or butter. Taking 9! Ibs. milk as yielding I Ib. increase
in live weight, I gall, milk as yielding I Ib. cheese, and
2\ galls, milk I Ib. of butter, the following comparative
values are arrived at : when veal is selling at 9d. per
Ib., cheese made from the same quantity of milk will
need to sell at 5.82d. per Ib., and butter at I4.56d.
per Ib. This takes no account of the extra labour in-
volved in cheese and butter-making, and it must not
be forgotten that the colostrum could not be used for
butter or cheese-making, although very suitable for
calf-feeding, both of these points make vealing
calves compare more favourably than is at first
apparent.

Conclusions. — It may be taken that 9d. per Ib. for
veal, 6d. per Ib. for cheese, and is. 3d. per Ib. for butter
are very approximately equivalent quantities. These
equivalents will only hold when the three processes
are carried out equally well. Sixpence per pound is not

152 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

difficult to get for cheese, and pd. per Ib. is as much as
can be expected for veal, so that when veal falls in
value it will no longer compare favourably with cheese-
making. Butter, on the other hand, often falls below
is. 3d. per Ib., and on this account veal production will
often give as good, if not better, results than butter-
making.

With careful feeding a gallon of milk, or even less,
will easily yield I Ib. of increase (equal to -6 Ib. veal),
where the calves are fed three times a day. At this
rate the return for milk consumed, including the
colostrum, works out to be 5|d. to 6d. per gall.

Buttermilk, if available, should be included in the
proportion of I part to 10 parts of milk, after the calves
are a fortnight old.

Probably four to five weeks is as long as it is
advisable to hand-feed calves intended for veal on a
dairy farm, or until they have reached 160 Ibs. live
weight or 96 Ibs. veal. An effort should also be made
to have the calves fat at the time veal commands a
high price, or the returns for vealing will not be great.
It must usually be regarded as a convenient way of
utilising surplus milk.

XXII. CALF-REARING.

The particular system one would adopt in the
rearing of calves depends first of all on whether it is
a dairy farm or an arable farm. In the former case
the calves are generally reared by hand, while in the
latter it is more usual to adopt the natural method by
allowing the cows to suckle their calves. In the latter
case the rent of the land would probably determine
whether it is necessary for the cow to rear more than

PLATE XIV

[Photo by Messrs Loram Bros.
Milking Devon Suckling Calf.

First prize at the Royal Show, Shrewsbury, 1914 ; owned by Messrs Loram Bros.
Rosamondford.

[Photo by Author.

B. Group of well-bred Dairy Shorthorn Calves being hand-reared at
Lord Lilford's Home Farm, Northants.

PLATE XV.

[Between pp. 152, 15S.

REARING OF CALVES 153

one calf; e.g., on £2 per acre land the cow would no
doubt need to suckle two or three calves during the
season, while on £3 per acre land she may suckle her
own calf and another for say two months, then another
pair for the next two months, and finally have a
single calf up to the end of the period of lactation.
As far as is practicable the calves should arrive
not later than the end of March, because late calves
do not make anything like the same progress as early
ones.

With pedigree cattle, one does not see cows rearing
two calves, as the fancy price obtainable for good
pedigree stock will admit of more expensive feeding,
and it is not unusual to find a calf taking all the milk that
two cows will produce, especially with the beef breeds.
Good breeding is, however, very important in com-
mercial cattle for beef production, as they generally
give a better return for the feeding in actual body
increase than inferior bred ones. In like manner a
milking pedigree is equally important for dairy cows.

Calves fed in the natural method need very little
attention, as compared with the hand-reared ones,
and the feeding of the cows is the same in both cases.
When the calves are intended to mature early, they
should be taught to eat linseed cake or bran and
ground oats at one and a half to two months of age,
and the quantity per day should be increased as the
milk yield from the cow diminishes. The calves may
be getting anything between 2 to 6 Ibs. of concentrated
food per head per day by the time they are twelve
months old. Hay would at the same time be given
when grass is not available.

Some persons appear to think that calves can be
" roughed," i.e., receive the roughest, mouldiest hay, and

154 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

inferior foods generally. This kind of treatment causes
them to lose their " calf-flesh," with the result that they
are longer in maturing, and never get the size and show
the quality which they might have done had they been
fed more liberally. Stock-owners are becoming more
alive to the importance and profitableness of keeping
calves intended for beef in good condition during the
first twelve months. Early maturity or baby beef is
the great aim of to-day, and it is wise economy to see
that they do not lose their " calf-flesh."

Hand-Rearing. — This is practised on dairy farms
where the milk is required for milk-selling, cheese-
making, or butter-making. The calves are fed three
times a day from two to four weeks on their mothers'
milk, after which time the whole milk should be
gradually substituted with separated milk and a fat
substitute such as cod-liver oil, cotton-seed oil, or a
suitable calf meal.

A word of caution is necessary at this point in
feeding newly born calves which have been bought in
the market or elsewhere. These calves are brought to
their new home hungry and starved, and it is quite
natural to give them on arrival a large feed of milk, to
which the calf is not yet accustomed, consequently
the calf scours, and in several cases is lost. A much
better plan is to place it in a warm box, give it a dose
of castor oil, and then feed it with about a quart of
newly drawn milk three times a day for the first two
or three days, after that gradually increase the quantity.

Where cod-liver oil is used as a fat substitute, one
should commence when the calf is about two weeks old
with a very small quantity at first, and gradually
increase up to a maximum of I tablespoonful each
meal by the end of the first month. It is best to pour

HAND-FEEDING OF CALVES 155

the oil into a pail first, and then after adding the milk,
stir it well to mix the oil with it. The milk should
then be fed immediately. As the calf grows bigger it
requires more food, and this is best made up by feeding
J Ib. linseed cake per day in addition to the above-
mentioned quantity of cod-liver oil. This method,
although comparatively cheap, can only be adopted
when pure oil, free from acidity, can be obtained.

Professor Hendrick (Aberdeen) demonstrated in
1908 that cotton-seed oil could also be used for this
purpose.

Calf Meals. — The safest and best fat substitute,
however, is a suitable made calf meal, provided it has
been properly made.

The following are three very useful calf meals : —

1. Equal parts of ground linseed cake and fine

middlings (seconds).

2. Ground linseed cake, 2 parts ; oatmeal, 2 parts ;

and ground linseed meal, I part.

3. Oatmeal, 2 parts ; maize meal, 2 parts ; and

ground linseed meal, I part.

The writer has found from experience that the first
two of these give very good results. The third proved
a very satisfactory mixture in the Irish Department of
Agriculture's calf-rearing experiments. These calf meals
are made into gruels by taking, say, for ten calves 2 Ibs.
of mixed meals in a pail, adding a little cold water, and
stirring, so as to make the meal into a thick paste, then
add i to i J galls, boiling water, and stir well to prevent
any lumpiness in the gruel. Leave for about half an
hour, then add milk, separated or skim milk, buttermilk,
etc., as the case may be, until it is made sufficiently thin
to drink ; the temperature should not be above blood

156 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

heat when fed to the calf, otherwise the hair round its
nose will come off. If boiling water is difficult to get,
cold water may be used, as long as the gruel can be left
for twelve hours. In this case it is necessary to warm
the gruel before feeding.

The gradual substitution of whole milk by gruel
may commence at the end of the second week ; but if
the whole milk is not urgently required, the calf will be
all the better to get whole milk for the first four weeks.
In about a fortnight's time the whole milk would be
all substituted with separated milk and gruel.

Second month. — During the second month the calf
meal gruel would be continued and gradually increased
in quantity up to. say, \ or J Ib. per head per day along
with \\ to 2 galls, separated milk. After a meal the
calf may be tempted to suck at a little linseed cake or
bran and oats until it will eat them out of a trough. In
this way calves can be taken out of the sucking habit,
and at the same time eat something which will do them
good. It is wonderful how keen calves become after
bran and oats.

It is important to know how to regulate the
laxativity of a calf's diet. This is not difficult if one
remembers that skim milk, separated milk, butter-
milk, and fine middlings (seconds) have generally a
binding tendency, while useful laxatives are linseed
meal, ground linseed cake, whey, roots, and grass.

Third month. — The calf will no doubt have shown
some inclination to eat a little nice, sweet hay, and it
should now have the opportunity of eating some in
order to develop its first stomach (paunch), which is
as yet comparatively small. The gruel may now be
withheld at mid-day, and replaced by a small feed of
equal parts of " nutted " linseed cake, bran and ground

HAND-FEEDING OF CALVES 157

oats. If available, a few pulped roots may be added
to the cake, bran and oats. The concentrated mixture
works out at 19 per cent, albuminoids, 5 per cent, oil,
and 9 per cent, fibre, which is a fairly satisfactory
" standard " for calves.

Fourth month. — Gruel can now be gradually reduced
in quantity, and the allowance of dry concentrated food
increased to I Ib. per head per day by the end of the
month. The calf will require more hay or cut grass,
unless it is out at grass. If no grass is available,
continue with pulped or better, fingered roots.

Fifth month. — Separated milk and gruel can now be
discontinued. The cake and meal mixture would need
to be gradually increased up to 2 Ibs. per head per day
by the end of the sixth month.

For the second six months the concentrated mixture
may consist of I part linseed cake, I part bran,
and 2 parts ground oats, giving a composition in the
mixture of: albuminoids, 17 per cent. ; oil, 6J per cent. ;
and fibre, g\ per cent.

Cotton cakes should not be given to cattle under
twelve months old, as the undecorticated cakes are too
high in fibre, and the decorticated cotton cake may also
cause digestive troubles unless fed with caution. If fed
at all, it should be in small quantities at a time, mixed
with maize and ground oats.

In this way a lovely young animal may be
made by the end of the first twelve months, and
although it may not be quite so "bloomy" as one fed
on whole milk, yet the difference will not be great, and
it will have been produced much more economically
(see p. 1 60). Mr Lindsay, in a paper before the
Agricultural Discussion Society at Aberdeen Uni-
versity in 1905, said he preferred a pail-reared to a

158 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

suckled calf for beef production, because the latter did
not weigh so heavy as it looked, on account of the
carcass having too much calf-fat ; while the pail-
reared one gave a much better carcass of meat,
and would give more satisfaction to the butcher and
consumer.

Calf-Rearing Experiments.

Three common systems of rearing calves have been
carefully tested in the exceedingly useful calf-rearing
experiments carried out by the Department of Agri-
culture for Ireland in 1903-4. These results agree so
closely with the writer's experience that the main
points of these trials are given below.

The calves were all males of the Cross Shorthorn
type, and were purchased locally (Collooney, Ireland)
about the end of April, the average age being five
weeks. After being divided up in four lots of ten
calves each, they were fed for a few days to prepare
them for the particular rations they were intended to
receive.

First Summer. — During the first summer of twenty
weeks, each lot was fed on a different rearing food, but
after that, they all received exactly the same treat-
ment, until the bullocks were seventy-three weeks
old. The rations for the first twenty weeks per head
were : —

Lot.

1. Whole milk, 6 quarts per day.

2. Skim milk, 6 quarts per day.

3. Separated milk and cod-liver oil (J to 2 oz. per day).

4. Separated milk plus meal mixture of — 2 parts oatmeal, 2

parts maize meal, and I part linseed meal.

CALF-REARING EXPERIMENTS

159

Assuming the cost of whole milk to be 4f d. per gall. ;
separated milk, id. per gall. ; cod-liver oil, 5s. 6d. per gall. 5
linseed meal, 173. per cwt. ; maize meal, 6s. per cwt., the
cost of food during the first twenty weeks works out
as follows : —

Lot.

Rearing Ration.

Total Cost
per Head for
20 weeks.

Aver. Increase
per Head in
20 weeks.

Cost per 100 Ibs.
of Live Weight
Increase.

£ S. D.

Ibs.

£ 8. D.

Whole milk .

4 I 2

288-3

I 8 I

Skim milk .

I 12 6

239-2

o 13 7

Separated milk and

cod-liver oil .

i 10 5

241-0

0 12 7

Separated milk and

calf meal

i 7 8

265-2

o 10 5

During the last two weeks of the above period
each calf received i to J Ib. maize meal while being
weaned.

First Winter. — This period extended over twenty-
four weeks, when each calf got an average daily ration
of i Ib. linseed cake and I Ib. of crushed oats, in addi-
tion to rye grass and meadow hay ad lib.

Second Summer (twenty-nine weeks). — Linseed
cake and crushed oats continued, but no hay was given
after 26th April, the cattle being allowed to graze from
1st April 1904.

The following table gives the average increases per
lot during the seventy-three weeks, in addition to the
amount realised when the bullocks were sold at
£i, 6s. 5|d. per cwt. (unfasted live weight), which is
equal to £i, 8s. 4|d. per cwt. fasted live weight. The
balances show what amount is left in each case to pay

160

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

for everything except the special feeding during the
first summer (twenty weeks) : —

Table giving Summary of Seventy-three Weeks' Feeding.

Lot 1.
Whole Milk.

Lot 2.
Skim Milk.

Lots.

Separated
Milk and
Cod-liver Oil.

Lot 4.

Separated
Milk and
Calf Meal.

No. of Calves in lot .
Aver, weight at com-
mencement of experi-
ment
Aver, weight at end of
73 weeks .

133-6 Ibs.
893-9 ,,

142-5 Ibs.
786-8 „

145-8 Ibs.
830-2 „

145-8 Ibs.
847-7 „

TOTAL GAIN IN 73
WEEKS .

760-3 Ibs.

644-4 Ibs.

684-4 Ibs

701-9 Ibs.

Aver, value of Bul-
locks when sold
Cost of Rearing for
first 20 weeks .

^IO II O

4 i 2

£9 5 9

I 12 6

£9 15 ii
i 10 5

£10 o i
i 7 8

BALANCES LEFT, to
pay for all but cost ol
first 20 weeks' feeding

£6 9 10

£7 13 3

£S 5 6

£* 12 5

NET SAVING OVER
WHOLE - MILK
RATION

...

£i 3 5

£i 15 8

£2 2 7

It will be noticed that the average value of bullocks
at end of experiment in Lot 4 was only iis. behind
that of Lot i, while the cost of rearing during the first
twenty weeks was £2, 135. 6d. more for Lot i than for
Lot 4, and this after taking the whole milk (Lot i)
at only 4f d. per gall., while the calf meal and separated
milk are fairly near their present value.

In the cod-liver oil lot the average results are
very good, but three calves have fallen out of the

CALF-REARING EXPERIMENTS 161

experiment, which is rather a significant point. It is
not quite up to the calf meal lot either in live weight,
increase, or economy.

Cost of Rearing a Calf for first Twelve Months.

If the calf is fed with calf meal and separated
milk in addition to a fairly liberal supply of dry con-
centrated food, the cost of feeding for the first twelve
months would be approximately as follows with an
average Shorthorn calf: —

First Week—

Colostrum ...... £o I 2

Second, Third^ and Fourth Weeks—

Mother's milk, varying from I to 2 galls, milk per
day = 31^ galls., at 6d. per gall. . . . o 15 9

Next Five Months —

2 galls, of separated milk per day = 300 galls., at

id. per gall. . . . . .150

Cakes and meals, varying from J to 2 Ibs. per
day=i57^ Ibs., at fd. per Ib. . . . o 9 10

Summer Grazing —

Twenty weeks, at 6d. per week . . .0100

Winter Months (seventh to end of twelfth month) —
8 cwt. swedes, at 8d. per cwt. . . .054

4 cwt. hay, at 35. 6d. per cwt. . . . o 14 o

5 cwt. cake, etc., at 75. per cwt. . . . 1150

COST OF FOOD FOR YEAR . . . ^5 16 i

If the calf had to be purchased, it would cost from
£i to £3. The cost of attendance and risk for the
year may be put down at £2 to £3, hence the total
cost of rearing the calf for the first year works out to
approximately £8 or £10.

162

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

In the Irish Department of Agriculture's winter and
summer calf-rearing scheme it was shown that the
autumn- and winter-born calves generally gave better
results for the feeding than those born in spring.
Take for example the following figures from vol. ix.,
No. 4, of the Department's Journal (1909), pp. 697-9,
and reported on by Mr J. M. Adams, the Instructor in
Agriculture : —

When Born.

Aver. Live
Weight.

Aver. Number
of Days Old.

Approx. Aver.
Daily Increase
in Live Weight.

Aver. Cost of
Rearing
per year.

cwts. qr. Ibs.

Ibs.

£ S. D.

November .

5 i 27

378

780

April .

4 o 12

393

7 6 5

When the value of the calves was taken into
account as well as cost of food, including grazing,
attendance, insurance, and interest on capital, there was
an average profit on the November calves of 93. id.
per head, while in the case of the April calves there was
an average loss of i6s. 5d. In a similar trial carried
out at Kinsale, and reported on by Mr W. F. Prender-
gast, the County Instructor in Agriculture, very similar
results were obtained ; but the average loss on summer
calves was reduced to is. 7^d. per head. There was
also a bigger mortality in calves born in summer
(9 per 100) when compared with those born in winter
(05 per 100).

Turning out to Grass.

Calves which are born in the earlier months of the
year should in most cases be turned out to grass in

CALVES ON GRASS-LAND 163

June. For the first day or two a couple of hours or
so would be long enough, so as to get them accustomed
to the pasture grass and open-air life. After the first
week they may be left out altogether. The gruel and
cake mixture may be given in the same way as above,
but the mid-day meal should be abandoned for two
reasons : —

(a) They do not need it when they can eat grass.

(b) To encourage them to eat grass only in the

middle of the day when the dew is off.

The effect of this interesting device is that the
calves live on " dry " grass chiefly, and thus do not
suffer from husk or hoose to the same extent. After the
night feed of gruel, followed by concentrated dry food
mixture, they lie down all night and hardly get up till
called to the morning meal, after which they lie down
again till 10 or 11 A.M. The middle part of the day is
then spent in eating grass, and it is always advisable
to keep them on a dry " short " pasture. It is generally
advisable to keep them off young clover, or a mixture
of rye grass and clover, in the autumn.

XXIII. DAIRY CATTLE.

Dairy cattle are kept mainly for the production of
milk ; but as milk is a perishable article of diet, it is
necessary either

(a) To sell or use it immediately ; or

(b) Make it into butter or cheese.

Butter should keep fresh and good for a week
or a fortnight, while cheese would not be ripe and

164 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

ready for eating until it is from a month to twelve
months old. Dairy cows may, then, be required for
milk, butter, or cheese production, and for each of
these branches of dairying a particular kind of milk is
required.

Milk selling. — In this case volume, or a large milk
yield, is all important as long as it keeps up to the
Government standard for butter-fat (3 per cent.), and
solids other than fat (8J per cent.). At the same time
the milk should be free from taints, either from food
or bad odours. The chief breeds of cows for this
purpose are Shorthorns, Ayrshire, South Devons,
Welsh (dairy) cattle, Kerries, and Dexter Kerries. The
Shorthorns are more especially suited to good land and
heavy hand-feeding, while the other breeds will stand
more exposure and thrive on scantier fare. First
crosses often give excellent results, e.g. Shorthorn-
Ayrshire.

Buttermaking. — Here volume of milk is not so
important, but the amount of butter-fat which the cow
yields during the year ; i.e., volume and richness in
butter-fat must be considered together. It is also
important that the fat-globules should be large, so that
the cream, which consists largely of butter-fat, will
separate all the more readily. Generally speaking,
cream with large fat-globules gives the finest
quality of butter. The most suitable breeds of
cattle for this purpose are Jerseys, Guernseys, South
Devons, and Shorthorns. Ayrshire milk has small
fat-globules, and is consequently more difficult to
churn.

Mr Matthews, in the 1909 Journal of the R.A.S.E.,
gives a tabular statement of the average amount of
milk from different breeds which is required to yield

SYSTEMS OF DAIRYING

165

i Ib. butter. This figure is what is called the " butter
ratio " of the milk.

Breed.

Ratio.

Gallons.

Red Polls .

Ibs.
30

Welsh

Shorthorn .

Lincoln Red Shorthorn

271

Ayrshire

27i

South Devon

Kerry .

Dexter Kerry

Longhorn .

221

Guernsey .

Jersey

Cheesemaking. — Milk for this purpose should have
small fat-globules, and at the same time be fairly rich
in butter-fat, so as to give a rich, mellow cheese. In
this case the cream does not rise so quickly, with the
result that the renneted milk coagulates or curdles
before the cream has time to rise to the surface. The
fat is then enclosed and carried down in the curd,
giving a much richer cheese. Milk from the Ayrshire
breed is specially suitable for cheesemaking on account
of the fat-globules being small, but thousands of tons of
cheese are made each year from Shorthorn milk, which
if skilfully managed gives excellent results.

The importance of milk rich in butter-fat for cheese-
making has been demonstrated by Mr D. K. Robb
F.H.A.S., of the West of Scotland Agricultural College
in a most convincing manner. The following table
shows the amount of cheese made from 10 gallons of
different qualities of milk in each case, in addition to
the return [per gallon, .assuming the cheese made

166

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

from poor milk to be as valuable as that from richer
milk, which is a big assumption : —

Quantity of
Milk taken.

Percentage
of Fat.

Yield of
Green Cheese.

Value of
Green Cheese,
at 6d. per Ib.

Return of Milk
per Gallon
based on
yield of Cheese.

gallons.

Ibs.

S. D.

6-02

3 o

7-25

3 71

8-45

4 *4

9-63

4 9

10.45

5 21

11-32

5 8

12-39

6 2i

7£

These figures show that the value of milk for cheese
production varies with its richness in butter-fat. Within
the above limits (i.e. 2 per cent, to 5 per cent, butter-
fat), the value increases at the rate of I Jd. per gallon
for i per cent, increase in butter-fat content.

Points of a Typical Dairy Cow.

Head. — The head should be neat and intelligent,
fairly wide between the eyes, broad between the nostrils,
fairly long from eyes to nose, and the eyes rather
prominent.

General appearance. — A " wedge-shaped " body
generally denotes milk ; i.e., the withers should be
fine ; ribs not too well arched, but long, giving great
depth to the body. The loin and hind quarters should
be as wide as possible, giving the wedge-shape from
withers to hind quarters. Further, when the cow is
viewed from the side, the fore quarters should be com-
paratively light consistent with a good constitution, and

A TYPICAL DAIRY COW 167

the body increase in depth and massiveness from the
fore to the hind quarters.

Leg bones should be rather fine, and the tail not
too thick.

Skin. — This is a most important point, as good
milkers generally have a rather thin, soft, flexible
skin with an oily feel. The hair should be soft and
velvety. Hidebound cows with coats of coarse hair
are not generally good milkers.

Udder. — This varies with the different breeds in
shape, but should in all cases be symmetrical, with teats
of equal size, big enough to grasp with the hand, but not
too large, and placed well apart. The udder should
generally extend well forward and well backward,
giving great capacity. The skin of the udder should
be very elastic, and shrink considerably after milking
each time.

General indications regarding Quantity and Quality of
Milk. — Cow wedged-shaped, fine along the shoulders
and back, slender neck, thin tail ; milk-veins large,
prominent, branched, and big at the point where they
turn into the body (milk-wells). Udder capacious,
soft and elastic. Escutcheon or milk mirror, which is
formed by hairs on back of udder, pointing upwards
instead of downwards, is regarded by some as a
reliable guide. This peculiar marking often con-
tinues upward in a broad band. At the same
time the back part of udder may have tufts of
hairs or " ovals " on it, and these are considered
a good sign, especially if the blood-vessels are
prominent on back of udder and considerably
branched.

Quality is indicated by a thin, flexible, mellow skin ;
soft velvety hair ; skin inside ears yellowish ; in fact

168 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

the skin generally should have an oily feel. Horns
also slightly yellow at base.

Building up a Herd.

It is very useful to know the various points of a
good dairy cow, but in breeding dairy cattle successfully
one should know something of the milking pedigree or
milk record which the respective parents have. The
keeping of milk records has been one of the secrets of
success in countries like Denmark, and during more
recent years it has become fairly common in this
country. This enables the breeder to select from his
herd those cows which give a large quantity of milk
each year, which is at the same time rich in butter-
fat.

The bull used on a dairy farm should also
be carefully selected, possess a strong masculine
body, a good constitution, and in addition a good
milking pedigree. The following example will show
the care which has been taken at the Geneva Experi-
mental Farm (New York State) with their Jersey
stock bull (Blue Belle Prince). In addition to being
entered in the herd book, he possessed the following
qualifications : —

(Sire— OAKLANDS NORA 2ND LAD.

BLUE BELLE PRINCE,

No. 70,075. -I Dam — BLUE BELLE PRINCESS, No. 157,364.
Born 6th October 1904. Milk record . . 8121 Ibs.

(. Butter ... 557 Ibs.

The bull's dam had therefore a record of giving over
5 cwts. butter in a year. The advantages of keeping
these records are that they tend to raise the milking
capacity of dairy cows very considerably, inasmuch as
individual records are kept which enable one to

PLATE XVI.

•I. Daiiy Cattle tethered, close to Lund, Sweden.

[Photos by Author.

Pedigree Dairy Shorthorn Cow, " Baroness Stately," owned by
Lord Lilford, Lilford Hall, Oundle, Northants.
This cow yielded over 800 galls, last year.

PLATE XVII.

[Between pp. 168, 16P.

VALUE OF MILK RECORDS 169

discover and discard poor and unprofitable milkers.
The quality of the milk is also ascertained, and in this
way each animal has a "milking" pedigree which is a
marketable commodity, seeing that it will either increase
or mar the selling price of the animal.

When milk records are kept, cows can be fed
according to their milk yield, which is the only logical
way. These records give the owner important informa-
tion with regard to the variation of composition due
to period of lactation, season of the year, or other
causes. Although a gallon of milk weighs from io±
to loj Ibs., it is generally sufficiently near and much
more convenient in these records to consider 10 Ibs.
milk as being equal to I gall., seeing that measuring
the milk is rather unsatisfactory.

In order to encourage the breeding of dairy cows
which give a large yield of good quality milk, and at
the same time yield a large quantity of butter-fat each
year, the Brit1' h Dairy Farmers' Association1 give
valuable prizes annually at the London Dairy Show
on the following scale of points : —

Milking Trials and Inspection Prizes.

The points to be awarded in the milking trials will
be as under : —

One point for every ten days since calving, de-
ducting the first forty days, with a maximum of
twelve points.

One point for every pound of milk yielded per
day, taking the average of two days' yield.

1 The Board of Agriculture are now encouraging the keeping
of milk records in England, by making grants from the Develop-
ment Fund to those counties which carry out the scheme.

170 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Twenty points for every pound of butter-fat pro-
duced per day.
Four points for every pound of " solids other than

fat" yielded per day.

Deductions. — Ten points each time the fat is
below 3 per cent. ; ten points each time the
"solids other than fat" fall below 8-5.

No prize will be given to cows in the milking trials
which do not come up to the following standard :—

Points (for Cows).

Pedigree Shorthorns . . . 100

Lincolnshire Red Shorthorns . . 100

Non-Pedigree Shorthorns . . no

Jerseys ..... 95

Guernseys ..... 85

Ayrshires ..... 90

Red Polls ..... 90

South Devons .... 100

Kerries ..... 80

Dexters ..... 75

The standard for heifers in the milking trials will be
two-thirds the points fixed for the cows.

The following example will show how the system is
applied at the Dairy Show : —

Shorthorn Cow— LADY SYBIL.

Points awarded.

Days since calving, forty-one days . . o-i

Average daily milk yield, 45-8 Ibs. . . 45-8

Average daily yield, butter-fat, 1-78 Ibs. . 35-6
Average daily yield, solids not fat, 4-05 Ibs. . 16-2
Total points awarded . . . 97*7

There were no deductions in this case,

BUTTER TESTS 171

Butter Tests.

The prizes are awarded according to the following
scale of points:1 —

One point for every ounce of butter; one point
for every completed ten days since calving,
deducting the first forty days. Maximum
allowance for period of lactation, twelve points.

Fractions of ounces of butter, and incomplete periods
of less than ten days, to be worked out in
decimals, and added to the total points.

In the case of cows obtaining the same number of
points, the prize to be awarded to the cow that
has been the longest time in milk.

No prize or certificate to be given in the case of: —

(a) Cows under five years old failing to obtain

twenty-eight points ; or in the case of Jerseys,

thirty points.
(&) Cows five years old and over failing to obtain

thirty-two points ; or in the case of Jerseys,

thirty-five points.

The following example shows how the total marks
are obtained : —

Shorthorn Cow — SOUTHFIELD NANCY.

Points awarded.
Average daily butter yield while at Dairy Show, in

ozs., 57 ozs. 57

Days since calving, thirty- seven days . . ...

Total marks gained .... "5?"

1 For the George Bateman Nelson (Coronation) Challenge Cup,
value ^25, the quality of the butter is also taken into account, and
five marks are given in each case for colour, flavour, and texture.

172 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Feeding the In-Calf Cow. — It is usual for cows to
have their first calf when they are from two to three
years of age. During the pregnant period they should
get plenty of fresh air and exercise in addition to a
fairly liberal supply of nourishing food, which will enable
the development of the foetus.

Generally speaking, cotton cakes, brewers' grains,
frozen turnips, and potatoes should be avoided. Heavy
feeding of concentrated foods, and especially cotton
cakes, appear to make the cow subject to milk fever.
As the time of calving approaches, the ration should
be of a more laxative nature. Bran mashes are
especially useful, and if these are not sufficient, the
cow may be given a dose (J to I Ib.) of Epsom-salts.

XXIV. MILK SECRETION.

Milk, like other secretions in the body, is produced
from the blood, the nutrients in which have been
supplied by the consumption of food (see pp. 24 to
31). The particular organ concerned in giving milk
its characteristic properties is called the udder
(mammary gland).

The udder consists of two halves, right and left.
Each half is again divided into two more or less
independent "quarters," with separate outlets called
" teats."

The interior of each quarter is made up of yellow
glandular tissue, which is very diagrammatically repre-
sented in the figure on p. 173.

The udder is well supplied with blood, which is
forced round the circulatory or vascular system by the
heart, and it is reasonable to assume that the quantity
and quality of milk yielded should bear some relation

MILK SECRETION

173

to the amount and quality of the blood circulating
through the udder each day.

The course taken by the blood is along the principal
artery (aorta) leading the blood away from the heart.
This main artery branches periodically in order to
supply the various organs with blood, but the branch
leading the blood to the udder passes along backwards
to the hind quarters, then in a downward direction

Alveolus or sac.

Small lobes (lobules) of alveolus.

Muscles under the control of the cow
(voluntary).

Milk-duct (Ductus lactiferonus).
Milk cistern.

Muscles not controllable by the cow
(involuntary).

Milk outlet of teat.

Structure of a Quarter.

along the thigh until it enters the mammary gland,
inside which it divides in the usual way into a large
number of very fine blood-vessels (capillaries) with
very thin walls. The capillaries practically mat them-
selves round the alveoli, and in this way the alveoli are
able to absorb from the blood any nutrient material
which they require for the manufacture of milk. These
capillaries gradually join up again as they leave the
front part of the udder, into a large blood-vessel called
the " milk vein," which follows the lower part of the

174 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

abdomen forwards till it almost reaches the posterior
part of the breast bone where the veins turn inwards,
thus leading the blood back to the heart. These points
of turning are called the " milk-wells."

Theories of Milk Secretion. — (a) Up to 1840, milk
was considered to be merely filtered blood, the milk
glands acting simply as a filter. Blood certainly
resembles milk in several respects, but there are
important chemical differences at least, which make
this theory untenable. The resemblances and differ-
ences are placed in apposition.

Milk. Blood.

Consists of fat-globules floating Consists of blood corpuscles

in a serum (separated milk). floating in " blood " serum.

Fat-globules give characteristic Blood corpuscles give charac-

yellow colour to milk. teristic red colour to blood.

Milk is 1-032 times as heavy as Blood is 1-055 times as heavy

water. as water.

Milk left exposed to air gener- Blood left exposed to air clots

ally curdles or sours. through formation of fibrin.

Soda salts predominate in ash Potash salts predominate in

of milk. ash of blood.

Fat in milk is comparatively Fat in blood consists largely of

rich in volatile fatty acids. non-volatile fatty acids.

The quantity and quality of milk has not been
affected very greatly when different foods have been
experimentally fed, so long as the ration used was
sufficiently rich in nutrients. This result should
naturally have been brought about if milk were only
filtered blood, but as milk constantly exhibited the
last two chemical differences given above, another
theory had to be formulated.

(£) The modern theory is that milk is manufactured
by the mammary glands from the blood. The way in

THEORY OF MILK SECRETION

175

which it is manufactured will now be discussed. One
fact which accelerated this idea was that colostrum
was found to contain certain minute bodies called
"colostrum corpuscles." Under the microscope, these
exhibited traces of cell structure apparently like shed
(epithelial) cells from the alveoli. This suggested that
milk may be a product formed by the decomposition
of the cell walls of the alveoli.

These alveoli have very thin walls, consisting
of a single layer of minute living cells, which
are in fact the secreting cells of the mammary
gland. If a section were cut so as to remove the
tops of the lobules of an alveolus, it would have
approximately the following appearance under the
microscope : —

Capillary blood-vessels.
Epithelial cells of alveolus.

Epithelial cells breaking up; the cell itself
apparently disappears in normal milk.

Fat-globules among the other secretions which
constitute milk.

The method of secretion can now be fairly easily
followed. The capillary blood-vessels which form a
network round these alveoli supply the glands of the
udder (mammary glands) with blood which is con-
stantly circulating through the udder. Part of this
is absorbed by the thin walls (epithelial cells) of
the alveoli, and these epithelial cells commence to
grow towards the inside of the alveolus, but as fast as

176 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

they grow inwards the contents of these cells are
apparently deposited inside the sac or alveolus. It is,
however, somewhat difficult to trace the walls of these
" shed " cells after, say, the second week of the lactation
period, and it is possible that they are dissolved in some
way or other, seeing the cell walls are so very thin.

It is probable that the various constituents of blood
and lymph, as well as the substance of cell glands, are
all utilised in the formation of milk constituents. The
difference in composition of the fat of milk as compared
with that of blood may be accounted for by the
mammary glands first of all splitting up the fat in the
blood and then rebuilding or reconstructing it in such
a way as to give it the peculiar character of butter-fat

(cp. p. 35)-

Colostrum. — The milk given during the first few
days after calving is of a rich yellow colour, glutinous,
and possesses laxative properties which nature considers
necessary for newly born animals. Chemically it is
very rich in albuminoids (16 to 18 per cent.), the greater
part of which is present in the form of albumen and
not casein, as is the case in normal milk ; hence a skin
rapidly forms on the surface of colostrum when it is
heated. At the same time it is poor in sugar (2\ per
cent). It gives a rich yellow colour to dairy produce,
but should not be used for butter till the end of the
first week ; and at least another week should transpire
before it is used for cheesemaking.

It is not a good practice to remove the whole of the
milk from the udder during the first day after calving,
as there would be danger of the udder being chilled
by this sudden removal of milk which has been
accumulating for some days. The best plan is to
milk the cow three or four times during the first day,

PLATE XV111.

A. Typical Jersey Cow in the Cathedral Dairy Company's herd,
at Messrs Loram Bros., Rosamondford, near Exeter.

[Photos by Messrs Loram Bros.

B. Devonshire Clotted Cream. — The Cathedral Dairy Company's Model

Creamery at Rosamondford.

[To face p. 177.

COMPOSITION OF MILK

177

and only take about half of the milk away at each
time. After this, the whole of the milk may be
removed at each time of milking.

Normal milk from Shorthorn cows contains about
3! per cent, albuminoids, consisting chiefly of casein
(curd), the albumen present only amounting to some-
thing like -J per cent. Fat varies from 3 to 4j per cent,
as in Shorthorns, Ayrshires, etc. ; and 4 to 6 per cent,
in the case of Jerseys, Guernseys, and South Devons.

The following gives the average composition of
colostrum (biestings, etc.) and normal cow's milk of
medium quality, e.g. Shorthorn. At the same time the
average composition of the milk of other farm animals
is given for comparative purposes ; and for convenience,
that of dairy produce as well.

Kind of Animal, etc.

Water.

Fat.

Albumin-
oids.

Sugar
(Lactose).

Ash.

percent.

per cent.

Cow (colostrum) .
,, (normal)

75i
87*

Mare( )

9oi

Ewe ( )

8oi

Goat ( )

Sow ( ) .

Ass ( ) .

89i

Bitch ( )

751

Cat ( ) .

Skim milk .

Separated milk

9oi

Cream (thin)

67i

»i

„ (thick) .

2±

Butter .

[

Cheese .

Butter-fat. — A knowledge of the chemical composi-

178 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

tion of butter-fat is of some importance, if the feeding
of dairy cows is to be properly understood. It consists
of glycerine combined with various fatty acids, which
may be —

(a) Non-volatile and insoluble in water (palmitic,

stearic, myristic, and oleic acids). Palmitic
acid combined with glycerine gives a fat called
palmitin; stearic acid and glycerine, stearin ; etc.

(b) Volatile and soluble in water (butyric, capric,
caproic, and capryllic acids).

Volatile means that the acids are capable of being
distilled off.

The chief point to bear in mind here is that the
characteristic feature of butter, as compared with
margarine, etc., is that the former is comparatively rich
in volatile fatty acids, while the latter is very poor.
These volatile acids are also responsible for the fine
full flavour one gets in good samples of butter, whereas
ordinary margarine possesses a tallowy, insipid flavour.

Margarine consists chiefly of non-volatile fatty acids
which are insoluble in water. These are also common
to butter, but not to the same extent. Generally
speaking, the firmer and more solid the fat is at
ordinary temperature, the larger is the proportion
of palmitin and stearin in it ; while the softer and
more liquid it is, the larger is the proportion of
olein.

The following very simple, household method of
distinguishing butter from oleo-margarine has been
taken from Farmers' Bulletin, No. 131, of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. To make
this test, a small amount of butter or oleo-margarine,
as the case may be, approximately the same size as a

BUTTER-FAT 179

good big cherry, is taken and heated, gently at first, in
a tablespoon held over a spirit lamp or gas stove,
stirring the fat about at the same time with a match
stalk. As soon as the fat becomes melted, bring the
spoon nearer the flame so as to boil the oily substance
as briskly as possible. Stir the contents thoroughly
during boiling two or three times, and always shortly
before boiling ceases.

Oleo-margarine boils noisily, sputtering more or
less, and produces little if any foam, while genuine butter
boils usually with less noise and produces " abundance
of foam."

Circumstances affecting the Quantity and Quality
of Milk.

The following are some of the chief circumstances
affecting the quantity and quality of milk : —

i. Soils and Manures. — Limestone soils give a
better quality of milk. It is sweeter, keeps better,
requires less rennet to curdle the milk, and the curd
does not need so much scalding when used for cheese-
making.

Milk from low-lying marshy pastures is apt to
deteriorate quickly. The butter and cheese made from
the milk of cows grazing on such pastures have not
the desired flavour and aroma. Draining should
generally precede any manurial treatment in improving
such pastures.

Fairly heavy dressings of nitrate of soda applied
in spring, force the grass considerably, and are not
desirable, seeing they are likely to result in the cows
scouring and in some cases, going " off their milk."

Bone meal is undoubtedly an excellent manure for

180 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

pastures, but if applied in spring, on cheesemaking
farms, it taints the milk so much that the cheeses
will taste of it for several weeks or even months. At
the same time the cheeses will " heave " a good deal
during ripening. Bone meal should therefore be
applied in the winter time, in order to give time for
the rain to wash it into the surface soil before the grass
begins to spring.

Many pasture soils grow grass of inferior quality,
and all kinds of objectionable weeds, simply because
the land is too poor to grow good pasture plants. The
effect of a dressing of slag (6 cwts.) and kainit (2 to 3
cwts. per acre) has generally a marked effect on the
quality of the herbage. The grass becomes sweeter,
white clover grows in abundance, stock cling
tenaciously to it, and the land carries a larger number
of stock per acre.

This point was demonstrated at the Midland
Agricultural College, in their "manuring for milk"
experiment, where 8 acres of pasture-land received a
dressing of 10 cwts. ground lime; half of this area
received in addition 4 cwts. of super (35 per cent.) and
ij cwts. sulphate of potash. During the first summer
the 4-acre plot, which received the phosphates and
potash, carried at first two, but later three cows,
while the remaining 4 acres only carried two. At
the end of the first season (1909), the cows feeding on
the manured plot produced very nearly 3489 Ibs.
more milk than those fed on the unmanured plot.
This amounts to an increased milk yield, in favour of
the manure, of 84 galls, per acre. The increased yield
of the cows fed on the manured plot has been more than
maintained during the seasons 1910, 1911, and 1912,
the average increase in milk yield per acre, due to this

COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF MILK 181

manuring, now standing at an average of 93 galls.
per acre.

2. Breed. — Milk from Jersey cows contains a much
higher percentage of butter-fat than is the case with that
from Shorthorns or Ayrshires, and the butter made
from it is both firmer and of a richer yellow colour. The
richer colour in butter from Jersey cows is largely due
to its containing a comparatively large proportion of
"volatile" fatty acids, which can very probably be
accounted for in two ways : —

(a) Careful selection through successive generations.
(b} The tethering system.

In the latter case, the cows have been accustomed
to handling from their youth up, and through constantly
being tethered, have not developed such a wild disposi-
tion as, say, an Ayrshire. Excitability, or wildness of
any kind, on the part of the cow producing the milk
appears to affect the colour of butter-fat adversely.

This is also an argument against using the dog
too freely when driving milking cows, as well as against
any rough treatment in the cowhouse.

3. Individual Character of cows of the same breed.
—This is sometimes called " individuality," and refers

to the fact that both the quantity and quality of
the milk yielded by any particular breed of cows
varies very considerably with individual animals
of that breed. E.g., in the milk record tests carried
out by the Lancashire County Council with Dairy
Shorthorn cows during the lactation period of 1906,
one notices that one of the worst milkers gave 404
galls, of 4-1 per cent, milk, while the best yielded
as much as 928 galls, of 3-4 per cent, milk for the
year. In the former case, the cow produced about

182

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

162 Ibs. pure butter-fat, while the latter gave fully
315 Ibs. Wide differences are to be found, of a similar
nature, in all breeds, due to their individual
characteristics.

4. Period of Lactation. — This point may be
illustrated from the Ayrshire milk records, the keeping
of which were supported by a grant from the High-
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Mr John
Spier included the record of every available cow at
the time, and obtained the following interesting
figures : —

Weeks since
Calving.

Average Milk Yield.

Average per cent.
Fat in Milk.

Under I week

26-3 Ibs. per day

3-75

2 weeks

28-9

3-56

31-9

3-23

32-1

3'3I

32-0

3-32

32-7

3-34

34*2

3-42

34-1

3-42

It will be noticed that the yield of milk gradually
increased up to the twelfth week. After that, it
began to fall off. With regard to the quality, the
percentage of fat decreased till the end of the fourth
week ; after that the fat gradually increased in propor-
tion.

5. Age of Cow. — In the Highland and Agricultural
Society's Journal for 1909, Mr Spier, in his report of
the Wigtonshire Milk Record Society, makes a tabular
statement of the average quantity and quality of milk
yielded by all (available) cows, according to their age,
which had completed their lactation periods. The

MILK PRODUCTION

183

following will be sufficient to demonstrate the
point: —

Age of Cows
in years.

Number of
Cows on which
figures based.

Average

Milk Yield in
gallons.

Average
per cent, of
Fat in Milk.

450-6

3-88

495-5

3-89

320

565-8

3-87

189

656-4

3-74

159

734-7

3-67

774-5

3-64

804-8

3-56

The chief points to notice are that the yield gradually
increases with the age of the cow, and the percentage of
fat was highest in the milk of young cows or heifers, but
after the third year the quality gradually declined.

6. First and Last drawn Milk. — The first quart of
Shorthorn milk may not contain more than 2 per cent,
of fat, and sometimes less, while the last quart drawn at
the same milking may run up to 6, 7, or 8 per cent. fat.

Difference in Composition between First and Last drawn Milk.

Water.

Albumin-
oids.

Fat.

Total
Solids.

per cent.

First drawn milk

89-42

3-70

1-20

10.58

Last drawn milk

83-37

3-48

7-88

16-63

Stripping .

80-60

3-37

IO-OO

19.40

The strippings may quite easily contain 10 per cent,
fat. These results are not altogether explained by the
cream being lighter and partially separating in the
udder, but partly by the greater resistance or friction

184

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

the fat-globules have to overcome in passing down the
milk-ducts into the milk-cistern in the udder. The
thinner part (serum) therefore finds its way into the
milk-cistern with less difficulty.

Dr Babcock (Wisconsin) found, from several trials,
that quick milking produced 2 to 13 per cent, more
milk which was a tenth richer in butter-fat than that
produced by slow milking. This superiority was con-
tinued for several months, until the milk-yield of the
cow naturally began to decline.

7. Morning and Evening Milk. — Generally speaking,
the morning milk is larger in quantity and poorer in
fat than evening milk. This may be partly due to the
vitality of the cow's system being lower during the
night than day time, more especially when the days
are short, but the chief cause is undoubtedly the
unequal periods between the times of milking. This
point is dealt with in Dr Lauder's report (Edinburgh
and East of Scotland College of Agriculture), Bulletin
XL, from which the following table is taken :—

Effect of Milking at Equal and Unequal Intervals on
Composition of Milk.

Morning (6.30 A.M.).

Evening (4 P.M.).

Fat in Milk.

Total Solids.

Fat in Milk.

Total Solids.

3-14 per cent.

12-01 per cent.

4-07 per cent.

12-89 per cent.

Morning (5.30 A.M.).

Evening (5.30 P.M.).

Fat in Milk.

Total Solids.

Fat iti Milk.

Total Solids.

3-67 per cent.

12-62 per cent.

3-70 per cent.

12-42 per cent.

CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECTING PRODUCTION 185

Milking the cows at equal intervals has reduced the
difference in fat content of milk from -93 per cent, to
•03 per cent.

8. Time of Calving. — Trials carried out by the
Department of Agriculture for Ireland (1907-8) indi-
cate that the November calvers gave, on an average,
1 60 to 1 80 galls, more milk in a year than the April
calvers (see p. 199).

Effect of Pood.

Pasture is the natural food of the dairy cow during
the summer months, and if a sufficient supply is available
of " good quality," the milk-yield will most likely be
kept up to the maximum. It is very doubtful, in this
case, whether the feeding of concentrated foods in
addition to pasture would have any permanent effect in
improving the yield of milk, or the percentage of fat
in it.

If, however, the pasture is only poor in quality, and
the cow is not receiving an adequate amount of nutrient
material in the form of forage crops, etc., the most
notable effect of the addition of suitable concentrated
food to the ration would be to increase the milk-yield ;
but there may be, at the same time, an increase in the
proportion of fat in the milk, z.£., the milk may also
be, and possibly would be of better quality. Liberal
feeding of concentrates would therefore push the yield
of milk to the maximum ; above this point fattening
would most likely take place. The cost of producing
this increased flow of milk has also to be kept in mind.

During the winter months, however, the pasture
grass, if available, has not the same feeding value, and
it is necessary on dairy farms generally, to lay up a
store of hay, straw, roots, and either home-grown or

186 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

purchased concentrates ; consequently, in order to pro-
duce milk one has to try and compound a ration which
will approximate to pasture grass in its efficiency as a
milk producer. Before one can do this it is necessary
to know something of the various effects of con-
centrates, fodder crops, and roots on the quantity and
quality of milk produced when fed to dairy cows.

The outstanding features of milk produced by cows
feeding on good pasture, as well as the butter, etc., made
from it, are : —

(a) The milk is, comparatively speaking, abundant
in quantity, and of good quality.

(£) The butter made from it has a rich yellow colour.

(c) The butter-fat is generally firm at normal
temperatures, but not hard and tallowy like
margarine. If well made, it possesses a sweet,
full, nutty flavour, and a pleasant aroma.

These are standards which we shall need to keep in
mind, and as fodder crops and roots form the basal
part of the ration, we will consider the effect of these
crops on dairy produce first.

Fodder Crops. — Green forage crops have a similar
effect to that of pasture grass, but green clover, if fed in
considerable quantity, is apt to give a tallowy butter.

Straw (usually oat straw) gives a very pale and
rather hard butter ; while meadow hay butter is not so
pale, but resembles it largely in the latter characteristic.

Root Crops have similar laxative properties to grass,
but the butter produced from such milk varies in
colour according to the kind of root crop fed ; e.g.,
mangels and sugar beet give a pale-coloured butter,
while carrots give a nice yellow colour to it. At Wye
College, cows which were giving a pale-coloured butter

FOOD AND MILK 187

from mangels had 28 Ibs. carrots per day substituted,
and it was found that the improved colour of the butter
was evident in two to three weeks.

Cabbages and swedes both yield a fairly good
coloured butter.

The feeding of an excessive quantity of turnips per
day (112 Ibs.) does not appear from Dr Lauder's report
to have either increased the proportion of water in milk,
or decreased the percentage of fat.

Dr Crowther states in a report on the variation of
chemical composition of butter (1907), that "easily
fermentable foods like grass, forage crops, and roots,
appear to increase the proportion of volatile (fatty)
acids, which give butter its peculiar flavour."

Certain root crops, viz., turnips, swedes, and cabbages,
when fed in fairly large quantities, impart what is
called a " turnipy flavour" to the milk, butter, etc., which
is certainly not desirable. In order to avoid this defect,
it is usually sufficient if the following precautions are
observed : —

(a) Feed all such foods in moderate quantity only.
(&) They should be fed immediately after, and not

before the cows have been milked.
(<:) Decaying cabbage or turnip leaves, etc., should

be removed from the cowhouse each day.

Concentrates. — The general effect is to push the
milk yield to the maximum. Dry concentrates tend
to improve the quality, and concentrates fed in the
sloppy condition (sometimes called crowdy) tend to
improve the quantity ; but these results appear to be
of a more or less temporary character, and are much
more marked in the early than in the later part of the
lactation periods.

188

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Concentrated Foods conveniently arranged for Compounding
Rations.

I. CONCENTRATES RICH IN ALBUMINOIDS (OVER

2O PER CENT.) AND LOW IN FIBRE.

(a) Rich in Oil—

Earth-nut cake

Decorticated cotton-seed cake

Soya-rbean cake (L)

Linseed cake (L)

(b) Poor in Oil, but fairly rick in Carbohydrates —

Gluten meal

Gluten feed

Peas

Beans (B)

II. CONCENTRATES FAIRLY RICH IN ALBU-

MINOIDS (ABOUT 20 PER CENT.) AND
HIGH IN FIBRE (OVER TO PER CENT.).

(a) Rich in Oil—

Cocoa-nut cake ......

Palm-nut cake

Dried grains

(b) Poor in Oil—

Egyptian cotton-seed cake (B)
Malt coombs or cummins (L)
Bombay cotton-seed cake (B)

III. CONCENTRATES VERY RICH IN CARBO-

HYDRATES (50 TO 70 PER CENT.) AND

LOW IN FIBRE (LESS THAN 10 PER CENT.).

(a) Fairly rich in OU —

Oatmeal

Maize ........

Rice meal

Oats

(b) Low in Oil—

Coarse wheat middlings (thirds or sharps) .

Bran (wheat)

Fine wheat middlings (seconds) (B) .

Barley

Wheat

Rye

Malt

Locust beans

Treacle (L)

15
104

15
14
15
10
12

6
10

4
i4

20
»4

: B " = Binding in effect; " L " = Laxative in effect.

FOOD AND MILK 189

When the amount of concentrated food has reached
a certain point, any increase in this amount does not
give a corresponding increase in the yield of milk.
In fact, in the Offerton Hall (Durham) experiments
it appears that when the concentrated food was in-
creased from 8 to 12 Ibs. per 1000 Ibs. live weight per
day, the milk-yield was only increased by 2 pints per
day, which must be considered a very small increased
yield for an increase of 4 Ibs. of concent-rated food per
head per day.

The relative proportion of the nutrients in the con-
centrated mixture appears to have some effect on the
composition and quality of milk and butter. E.g., in
experiments carried out by the Midland Dairy Institute
in 1896, with a basal ration of 50 Ibs. roots, 10 Ibs. chaff,
and 6 Ibs. hay per day, when the ratio of digestible fat
(from linseed cake) to albuminoids in the ration was
as 1:3, it appeared to increase the proportion of
fat in milk, but the butter made from it was soft
and inferior compared with that obtained when the
proportion of fat to albuminoids in ration was as
1:6.

Dr Crowther states in his 1906 report that "heavy
feeding of cakes rich in oil — say upwards of 4 Ibs. per
day — tends to lower the proportion of volatile (fatty)
acids, or in other words to increase the amount of
margarine-like ingredients of the butter-fat." This
supports the results obtained at the Midland Dairy
Institute-
When "decorticated cotton cake or meal" is in-
cluded to a greater extent than, say, one-third of the
concentrated food given, it tends to give a hard, pale-
coloured butter with a tallowy sort of flavour. " Linseed
cake," on the other hand, if rich in oil, gives a softer

190 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

butter of fairly good colour, but it does not keep at
all well.

" Brewers' grains," according to the Offerton Hall
experiments (1907), when fed as part of the concen-
trated food in the ration (i.e. 20 Ibs. per day) in summer,
have the effect of increasing the daily milk-yield, more
especially in the later period of lactation. There were,
however, slight indications that they affected the per-
centage of fat in the milk adversely in the early
lactation period, but this was not so appreciable towards
the end of the lactation period. The effect in winter is
similar, but the fat content of milk on the average is
not appreciably affected.

Bean meal, pea meal, soya cake, fresh cocoa-nut cake,
palm-nut cake, gluten meal, gluten feed, maize, ground
oats, bran, etc., give a fairly good coloured and good
flavoured butter.

The feeding stuffs which make butter a little harder
than normal, or a little softer than normal, if they are
fed in considerable quantity, are as follows : —

(a) Harder than normal. — Cotton cakes, palm-nut

cake, pea meal, bean meal, green clover,
vetches, and dry fodder crops, e.g. oat straw.

(b) Softer than normal. — Linseed cake, maize meal,

rice meal, bran, and oatmeal.

Bitter Milk may be caused in the following
ways :—

(a) Feeding inferior cotton cakes.

(b) Feeding brewers' grains in too large quantity :

the bitter taste is more evident in the cream.

MILK FAULTS 191

tastes caused by foods do not increase on
standing, while those from udder complaints do.

(d) Cows eating orchard tree leaves carrying on

their surface bacteria and yeasts which bring
about this taint.

(e) Lack of cleanliness with dairy utensils : but this

is produced after the milk leaves the cow, and
has nothing to do with feeding.

" Ropy milk," may be produced when cows eat
certain plants, such as butterwort (Pinguicula) and dog's
mercury.

Strong objectionable flavours may be due to cows
eating garlic, meadow saffron, sun spurge, buttercups,
pine leaves, and shoots of trees, etc. Garlic is said to
colour the milk yellow, while fenugreek and madder
give it a red colour. Salt may become tainted by
exposure to insanitary conditions, and impart a bad
flavour to butter.

XXV. RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS.

In compounding rations for dairy cows, it is
necessary to keep in mind that fodder crops (hay,
straw, etc.) and root crops will generally form the basal
part of ration. These are bulky and poor in albumin-
oids. The fodder crops are very high in fibre, hence
the concentrated mixture used should be : —

1. Rich in albuminoids ;

2. Fairly rich in oil ;

3. Low in fibre ;

4. Attractive in flavour, and of a fairly laxative

character.

192 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The foods selected should have no injurious effect
either on the quantity or quality of milk yielded, or the
butter, etc., made therefrom. Another practical point
is, when very rich concentrated foods are used, they
should generally be " opened up " by adding a " bulky
concentrate" such as bran or brewers' grains, so as
to enable the digestive juices to act more effectively
on the nutrients in the ration.

The following " standard " should be adhered to in
making up the concentrated part of ration, although
one would come fairly near by taking one-quarter
from Section I. (p. 188), one-quarter from II. (a), and
one-half by weight from III. ; or one-third from I. and
two-thirds from III.

Feeding Standard for Dairy Cows. — The following
standard for the concentrated part of ration will be
found very suitable for cows receiving hay or straw
along with roots : —

Albuminoids, 15 to 20 per cent. ; oil, 4 to 6 per cent. ;
fibre, not exceeding 10 per cent.

When cows are receiving straw or inferior hay for
the bulky fodder, up to, say, 21 Ibs. per day, the com-
position of the concentrated food should approximate
to the maximum : i.e., albuminoids, 20 per cent. ; and oil,
6 per cent, (see rations 4, 6, 7, and 8). Locust-bean meal
may be used to sweeten a ration, and thus make it more
attractive.

With regard to roots, cabbages, etc., these may be
given up to 40 Ibs. per head per day, or possibly more.
If these are not available, their place may be taken
with 20 to 35 Ibs. wet brewers' grains, or in some cases
treacle. In fact, the latter is very useful as a combined
sweetener of foods and a laxative when the ration
requires it.

PLATE XIX.

[Photo by Mr F. Preece, Hereford.
A. Hand Milking.

Miss Nancy Jones, Staunton-on-Wye, Hereford, has won many prizes in
milking at the leading shows in girls' class (p. 195).

[Photo by Messrs R. A. Lister & Son, Dursley, England.
B. " Lister " Milking Machine.

The " Lister " is the very latest British milking machine on the market, and is
giving great satisfaction to the many farmers who are using it (p. 196).

[To face p. 192.

RATIONS FOR DAIRY CATTLE

193

The amount of concentrated food may be calculated
for each cow by allowing

(a) J Ib. for every 100 Ibs. live weight of cow;
(£) 2 to 2j Ibs. for every gallon of milk produced
per day, i.e. \ Ib. for every quart.

With a cow of 800 Ibs. live weight, and yielding
3 galls, milk per day, the amount required would be
(a) 8 x i = 2, (&) 3 X 2 = 6 ; i.e. 8 Ibs. in all per day.

The following mixtures of concentrates x for winter
milk production are arranged for a cow of 800 Ibs. which
is giving 3 galls, milk per day. A15iO4F7 means that its
composition works out to be : albuminoids, 15 \ per cent. ;
oil, 4 per cent. ; and fibre, 7 per cent.

5. 2 Ibs. bean meal.

1. 2 Ibs. bean or pea meal.
2 Ibs. bran (wheat).

2 Ibs. crushed oats.
2 Ibs. maize meal.
A15iOF7.

2. 2 Ibs. linseed cake.
4 Ibs. barley meal.

2 Ibs. bran.

A1604iF7.

3. i^ Ibs. decorticated cotton

cake.

1 \ Ibs. bran.

3 Ibs. ground oats.

2 Ibs. maize meal.

Am°6F7i.

4. i Ib. soya-bean cake.

3 Ibs. dried brewers' grains.
2 Ibs. sharps (coarse

middlings).
2 Ibs. barley meal.

3 Ibs. dried grains.
3 Ibs. maize meal.

6. 3 Ibs. gluten feed.
2 Ibs. malt coombs.
2 Ibs. rice meal.
i Ib. maize meal.

2 Ibs. soya-bean cake.
2 Ibs. palm-nut cake.
2 Ibs. barley meal.
2 Ibs. maize meal.

2 Ibs. gluten meal.

1 Ib. cocoa-nut cake.

2 Ibs. bran.

3 Ibs. ground oats.

1 Farmers who wish to make similar concentrated mixtures up
should refer to special table of analyses on p. 188.

194 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Rations I, 3, 6, 7, and 8 would be very suitable for
butter production as well as for cheese, while rations 2, 4,
and 5 may be used for cows when the new milk is sold.
Rations I, 2, 4, and 5 would go well with hay as the
fodder crop, and rations 3, 6, 7, and 8 with straw.

If concentrated food is required in the summer
months when the cow is out at pasture the same
standard may be taken, but the amount required per
head would only be one-quarter to one-half of the
above rations. When pasture grass is sufficiently
abundant and of fairly good quality, it is doubtful
whether it is remunerative to give cows any concen-
trated food, as they stand about the gate when they
should be grazing. In the Offerton Hall experiments
Professor Brynner Jones reports (1907) that "cows
receiving nothing but grass gave relatively a much
more profitable return than those supplied with con-
centrated food ; in fact, the milk cost double to produce
in the latter case as compared with the former."

In town dairies in summer the cows receive forage
crops such as rye grass, oats and vetches (green), etc.,
along with cake, bean meal, bran and wet brewers'
grains. The latter appear to have considerable influence
in keeping up the supply of milk as the lactation period
advances.

If the pasture grass in early spring tends to scour
animals, it would be wise to give a little Bombay
cotton cake, which has a considerable " binding " effect.

XXVI. THE ART OF MILKING.

It is a good plan to tie the hind legs of a heifer
together with a strap each time she is milked for the
first few weeks after calving, as it trains her to stand

VARIOUS METHODS OF MILKING COWS 195

with her feet together, with the result that she is* much
better to milk.

Milking the cows with dry hands is much to be
preferred to milking with wet hands, as the latter
method is apt to get dirt into the milk pail.

Milking should be carried out quietly, quickly, and
thoroughly. If the whole of the milk is not removed
from the udder each milking time, the yield will very soon
go down, and the richest milk be left in the udder.
In the Hegelund system of milking, most of the milk
is removed by hand in the ordinary way ; the milker
then commences to massage the udder, so as to force
the milk gently into the milk cistern in the udder.
After this is done, the remaining part of the milk is
removed from the udder. The milk-yield can certainly
be increased a little by this method, but it is doubtful
if the increased yield will pay for the extra trouble.

The usual system of milking cows is to commence
on the two fore quarters, and when most of the milk
is removed from them, to milk the two hind quarters.
It is quite natural to commence on the fore quarters, as
it is the easiest way, but the tendency of constantly
adopting this method of milking is to make the hind
quarters larger and more capacious than the fore
quarters.

The explanation is, that shortly after one commences
milking, the cow begins to let her milk come ; this
gorges the hind quarters and expands them day after
day, with the result that this continual internal pressure
gradually enlarges the hind quarters. In the fore
quarters the milk does not get much chance to enlarge
them, as it is being removed all the time the cow is
letting it down, hence they do not develop in many
cases to the same extent as the hind quarters. The

196 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

way to remodel such an udder is now obvious, for what
is necessary in such cases is to commence milking on
the larger quarters each time, so as to give the milk
a chance, after the cow lets her milk down, of
expanding the smaller quarters.

Machine Milking. — Shortage of labour has forced
the attention of many farmers to milking machines,
who are impressed by the state of perfection attained
by the modern machine. By the aid of suction,
pulsators, etc., the natural method of milking is very
closely imitated, hence cows and heifers take kindly to it.

Generally speaking, machines collect the milk in
cans, which receive the milk from one cow (single-can
system) or two cows (double-can system). Cans may,
however, be dispensed with by installing the "Auto-
matic Receiver System," which leads the milk through
tin-lined pipes direct to the dairy. The engine driving
the machine may further be used for the supply of
electric light in the cowhouse, etc.

XXVII. COST OP PRODUCING MILK, KEEPING
DAIRY COWS, ETC.

Dr Crowther shows in his second report (1913) the
average cost of producing milk throughout the year,
when the food only is taken into account. This varied
very considerably ; in fact, some of the cows produced
milk at half the cost of others under observation.

In the following summary the hay is taken at 553.
per ton ; oat straw, 305. ; barley straw, 253. ; swedes, los. ;
mangels, los. 6d. ; and turnips, 8s. per ton ; grass, 33. 6d.
per week ; concentrated foods at cost price.

Out of 204 cows included in the report, the average

COST OF FEEDING DAIRY COWS

197

cost of food to produce a gallon of milk is seen to vary
greatly, for —

Cows.

Estimated cost

per gall. Cows.

21 produced milk at rod. or over

7 „ „ 9d. to lod.

15 „ „ 8d. „ 9d.

Estimated cost
per gall.

36 produced milk at yd. to 8d.
42 „ „ 6d. „ 7d.

83 „ „ less than 6d.

The cost of producing milk per gallon is naturally
much less in the summer than in the winter months.
If the cows are getting nothing more than pasture
grass, the cost may be reduced to about one-half that
in the winter months. If concentrated foods are
required in addition to grass, the cost will be increased
to two-thirds or even three-quarters that of winter milk.

The above figures show the necessity of selection in
the dairy herd, if milk is to be produced economically.

Cost of Keeping Dairy Cows.

This varies according to the time of year the cows
calve. E.g. : —
Approximate Cost per Annum of Keeping a Cow.

March Calver.

Twenty-two weeks' grazing in summer, May to

October — i^ acres, at ^i, 55.
Bombay cake fed while on grass — 2 Ibs. per day = 3 cwts

at ^4, 155. per ton ....
Cake and meals during usual milking period — 6| cwts

at £,7 per ton ....

Oat straw (part long, part chopped), i ton, at £i, 55

produced on the farm (consuming value) .
Hay, i ton, at £2 per ton (consuming value) .
Roots, 5 tons, at gs. per ton (consuming value)

TOTAL COST OF FOOD
Attendance, at aver, of gd. per week .
Vet., say 55. .....

£12 12 3

Risk may be put at ^i to £it ios., and depreciation would
have to be considered in some cases.

I
2
2

5
5

0
0
0

£10

2
0

0
0

198 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

October Calver.

October till May (thirty weeks), following ration : —

Swedes, 56 Ibs. per day = 5^ tons, at 95. . -^273

Hay, 14 „ „ =26 cwts., at £2 . . 2 12 o

Straw, 7 „ „ = 13 cwts., at £i, 55. . . o 16 3

Decorticated cotton cake, 2 Ibs.^j

Bran, 2 Ibs. . . \& Ibs. per day= 15 cwts.,

Maize meal, 3 Ibs. . j at £7 per ton . 5 5 o

Pea meal, i Ib. .

June to September (twenty-two weeks) : —

Grazing = i^ ac., at £i, 55. per acre . . .1176

Bombay cake, 2 Ibs. per day at grass . . . 0143

TOTAL COST OF FOOD . . . ^13 12 3

Attendance, at is. per week . . . .2120

Vet., say 55. . • . . .050

9 3

Risk may be put at £1 to £i, ios., and depreciation would
have to be considered with some cows.

Returns from Milk Selling per Cow per Year.

March Calver.

500 galls, milk, at 8d. per gall, (summer) . ^16 13 4
1 50 galls. „ lod. „ (winter) . 650

£22 18 4
Less carriage on rail, at |d. .

per gall. . . ^i 5 o

Less cost of food, etc., as

above . . . 12 12 3

13 i? 3

Balance in favour of March Calver .^911

RETURNS FROM MILK SELLING 199

October Calver.

500 galls, milk, at lod. per gall, (winter) . ^20 16 8
1 50 galls. „ 8d. „ (summer) . 500

^25 16 8
Less carriage on rail, at ^d. .

per gall. . . .^150

Less cost of food, etc., as

above . . . 16 9 3

I7 I4 3

Balance in favour of October Calver .,£825

These estimated results appear to show that the
balances to be obtained by winter milk production as
compared with milk produced mostly during the
summer months of the year, are approximately the
same. In arriving at these results, it has been assumed
that a spring calver gives the same amount of milk as
an autumn calver, but is this so ? The following results
will shed light on this point.

In some trials carried out by the Irish Department of
Agriculture, Mr Adams gives the following interesting
comparisons of November and April calvers. There
were five cows in each lot, records being kept in the
case of the November calver for the twelve months,
Nov. 1907 to Nov. 1908. In the same way the records
of April calvers were kept from April 1908 to April
1909. A few results selected from the report are as
follows : —

November Calver. April Calver.

Average yield of milk for year, Average yield for year, 678

836 galls. galls.

Average cost of food for year, Average cost of food for year,

£12. £10, 35. od.

Total cost of keeping cows for Total cost, ^17, 43. 3d.

year averaged ^21, 175. 2d,

200

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

November Calver.

Yielding i| galls, of milk on
an average at the end of
tenth month.

Gave 20 galls, milk or more
each per week for twenty -
seven weeks.

When turned out to grass in
spring, milk-yield showed an
increase.

Highest yield in Dec., Jan.,
Feb., and March, when milk
is dear.

Balance, after allowing for rent,
taxes, insurance, deprecia-
tion, milking, and delivering
milk, etc., was £4, 6s. 2d.

April Calver.

Only giving this average up to
end of eighth month.

Gave 20 galls, milk each per
week for thirteen weeks only.

Not much effect.

Highest yield in summer when
milk is cheap.

Balance left was only £ i , 1 6s. i d.

It appears from the above results that winter milk
is quite as profitable as that produced in summer,
provided the cows produce at least 650 galls, milk per
year, and sufficient home-grown foods are raised to
provide the bulk of the ration for winter feeding.

The November calvers yielded on an average
158 galls, of milk more than the April calvers, which
is a very striking point in these trials.

Comparing the Different Systems of Dairying.

Suppose cow commenced milking in the spring-
time : —

i. Milk Selling—

Summer months — 500 galls, milk, at 8d. per gall. £16 13
Winter months — 150 galls, milk, at lod. per gall. 6 5

£22 18 4

PLATE XX.

bo
p

4£

PLATE XXI.

[Between pp. ZOO, 201

FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF DAIRYING 201

2. Buttermaking (i\ galls. Milk to i Ib. Butter) —

260 Ibs. of butter, at is. 2d. per Ib. . . ^15 3 4

285 galls, separated milk, at id. . . . 289

39 galls, buttermilk, at id. . . .036

£i7 15 7

3. Cheesemaking (i gall. Milk to I Ib. Cheese) —

(Say 550 galls, made into Cheese, and 100 galls, made

into Butter.)
550 Ibs. cheese, at 6^d. per Ib. . . .,£12180

468 galls, of whey (85 per cent, of milk taken),

at |d. per gall. . . . . .0180

4if Ibs. butter, at is. 2d. per Ib. . .286

90 galls, separated milk, at id. per gall. . .076

6 galls, buttermilk, at id. per gall. . . 006

12 6

Score Card for Dairy Shorthorn Cow.

The score card on p. 202 has been drawn up by
the writer for use by the students in connection with
the Winter School of Agriculture at Hereford.

XXVIII. BEEP CATTLE.

The fattening of beef cattle plays a very important
part on arable farms, seeing that it is, after all, one of
the most convenient ways of dealing with the bulky
produce (straw and roots chiefly) grown on the farm.
A further consideration is the production of large
quantities of manure, which is so valuable for maintain-
ing the fertility of arable land. In fact, big crops and
heavy cattle-feeding usually go together on farms
in this country.

Generally speaking, the eastern half of Great

202 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

General Appearance, 22 points —

1. FORM — Wedge-shaped when viewed from top as well as

from side. Underline inclining downwards from fore-
end to flank

2. TEMPERAMENT— Active, but quiet to handle .

3. QUALITY — Skin yellowish in colour, soft, moderately

thin, very flexible, and elastic

Head and Neck, 10 points —

4. HEAD — Feminine. Horns free from coarseness and

slightly yellow at base ; face moderately long ; eyes
bright, prominent, and wide apart ; nose broad between
nostrils

5. NECK — Fairly long, fine at junction with head, and

sloping gradually on to shoulders ....
Fore Quarters, 8 points —

6. SHOULDERS — Not prominent, fairly light, sharp on

withers

Body, 1 6 points —

7. CHEST — Fairly deep, giving sufficient room for heart

and lungs. Well filled up behind shoulder.

8. BACK AND LOIN— Back moderately long and straight.

Loin broad, strong, and level

9. RIBS — Moderately well sprung and long, giving deep

body .

Hind Quarters, 14 points —

JO. QUARTERS — As long and as wide as possible ; hook-
bones wide apart, but not too prominent ; pin-bones
fairly high, and wide apart

11. TAIL— Long, fine, set on level with back

12. THIGHS— Sinewy, long, thin, and well bent .
Udder, 25 points —

13. CAPACITY— Should extend well forward and backward,

be capacious and symmetrical

14. QUALITY — Skin flexible, elastic, and free from fleshi-

ness. Hair on udder silky

15. TEATS— Medium size, uniform, and placed fairly well

apart. Milk easy to draw

16. MiLK VEINS — Large, prominent, well branched, with

well-defined milk- wells

17. ESCUTCHEON — Spreading wide over thighs, extending

high and wide, with large ovals or tufts on thighs
, 5 points—

1 8. Not too long ; bone free from coarseness

ESTIMATED WEIGHT . . . cwts.

AGE BY TEETH OR HORNS . . . yrs.

BEEF CATTLE 203

Britain is largely devoted to arable farming and stock
fattening, while the western half is more noted for its
grass-land and dairy farming ; consequently it is in
the eastern half of England and Scotland that one
expects to see the house-fattening of cattle carried on
to the highest pitch of perfection, and in the western
half to find the best examples of grass-fattening of
cattle, as in Herefordshire and similar counties.

Type of Animal required. — It is essential to know
what are the outstanding points of a typical animal
for beef production, so as to enable one to breed or buy
store, a type that will give a good account of itself.

The chief points are as follows : —

Head. — Neat, and not too large. Forehead broad

between eyes, and nostrils wide apart.
Neck. — Clean cut at throat, and sloping gradually

on to shoulders.
Shoulders. — Not prominent along shoulder-blades,

well covered with flesh, and sloping gradually

on to barrel.
Body. — Well filled up behind shoulders. Ribs well

sprung and long, giving deep sides. The

underline should be straight, and the flank

come well down.

Back. — Straight and broad, with a strong loin.
Hind quarters. — Should be as long and as

square as possible. Hook-bones should not be

prominent, and the line from the hooks to the

shoulders along the arch of the ribs should

make a very gentle curve.
Thighs. — As well developed as possible, well fleshed

down to the hock, giving a good second thigh

and twist.

204 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Legs. — The bones of legs should be free from
coarseness.

Breed and Quality. — It is further important that
animals for fattening purposes should be of a breed
or cross which is noted for its capacity to fatten, as
experience shows that a well-bred animal will generally
pay to feed, while inferior bred ones often prove
disappointing. The skin should be fairly thick but
flexible, and the whole body in fat animals covered as
uniformly as possible with flesh. When fat, patchiness
is very undesirable.

Early maturity is very important, and beasts should
as a rule be selected which will grow and thrive at
the same time.

Available Breeds.1 — The most generally known
breeds in this country are : —

Polled Breeds.— Aberdeen-Angus, Red Polls, Gal-
loways, etc.

Horned Breeds. — Herefords, Shorthorns, North
Devons, West Highland, W7elsh cattle, etc.

The outstanding features of these breeds are as
follows : —

Aberdeen- Angus. — Found chiefly in the east of
Scotland ; large black cattle — mature early ;
short legs, carrying an enormous shapely body
which is generally evenly covered with flesh ;
meat of excellent quality. Require heavy hand-
feeding, hence only suited to the better classes
of land in this country.

1 For full description of the various breeds of cattle, see Prof.
Wallace's Farm Live Stock of Great Britain.

FATTENING BREEDS OF CATTLE 205

Red Polls. — Located chiefly in the south-eastern
counties of England. Have much in common
with Aberdeen-Angus, but are red instead of
black in colour.

Galloway. — Common in the south-west of Scotland.
Polled black cattle, not so large as Aberdeen-
Angus. The coat is generally fairly long
and shaggy, often with brownish tinge on
tips of hair. Differs from Aberdeen-Angus
in having a flatter poll (A.A. peaked) ; ears
larger, placed farther back on head, and usually
carrying a long fringe of hairs on edge of
ear. Its bones are not quite so fine, or its skin
so thin. Does not mature so early, but can
thrive on second-rate land. Produces an ex-
cellent quality of beef.

Herefords. — Confined largely to Herefordshire and
adjoining counties in England. Have character-
istic white faces and red-coloured bodies with
patches of white along the underline. These
are big, hardy cattle, which mature early, and
thrive on grass-land where an Aberdeen-
Angus or Shorthorn would probably starve.
They are typical grazier's beasts, and are splendid
"hustlers." Quiet, docile, and fatten readily,
giving a carcass of first quality meat. They
are said to require much less water to drink
than, say, a Shorthorn.

Shorthorn. — Widely distributed over the British
Islands. Vary in colour from reds, roans, to
whites. Large, horned cattle, and mature early.
The beef (Booth) type fatten readily. As a rule,
more, prominent on hook-bones than above-
mentioned breeds. Require fairly heavy hand-

206 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

feeding, and then yield a very fine class of
beef.

North Devons. — Mostly found in the south and south-
west of England ; reared chiefly in Devon and
Somersetshire. Medium sized, red in colour, and
horned cattle with short legs and compact bodies.
Their symmetry is perfect. Graze well on the
second-rate pastures of their native hills, and turn
their food to good account. The quality of their
flesh is such that it commands a very high, if not
the highest price, in the London market.

West. Highland. — The name indicates the part of
Scotland where they are most commonly found.
They are horned cattle with long, shaggy
coats. The colour of their coat varies from
light dun, tawny yellow, to black. Very hardy ;
thrive on very scant herbage. Slow maturers,
but when fat yield meat of the finest quality.

Welsh Cattle. — Found mostly in North Wales.
They are black, horned cattle which thrive
very well on hilly pastures. Mature early, and
give a good quality meat.

Although the pure breeds do splendidly for beef
production, feeders are generally well satisfied if they
can get a suitable first cross of the above-mentioned
breeds ; in fact, for commercial beef cattle, the first
crosses are exceedingly popular.

The following are popular crosses : — -

Aberdeen-Angus x Shorthorn. — Generally black, and
polled. Responds to heavy feeding. Favourite
cross at Smithfield Show.

Hereford x Shorthorn. — Mostly white faced. A
splendid cross. Fattens readily.

CROSS-BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 207

Shorthorn (White] x Galloway, called Blue-Greys—
Blue-grey colour, and polled. Favourite cross in
north England and south Scotland.

Hereford x Galloway. — These are generally white
faced, and polled. Hardy cross, and ready
fatteners.

Aberdeen - Angus x West Highland. — Generally
black, and polled.

Shorthorn x West Highland. — Horned, and
generally Highland type.

Dairy farmers are not slow to meet the demand
of the "feeders" for young calves, hence they cross
their Shorthorn dairy cows with an Aberdeen-Angus
or a Hereford bull. In like manner the Ayrshire dairy
cows are crossed with Aberdeen-Angus or Galloway
bulls. The result is that the bullocks of these crosses
fatten fairly well, while the heifer calves later on make
splendid mothers, as their milking qualities have been
improved by the cross. If crossed again with, say, a
Shorthorn or other breed of the beef type, they give a
second cross which is an excellent class for early beef
production.

How the Feeder secures his Animals. — There are,
generally speaking, three ways adopted by feeders in
securing the necessary animals for fattening purposes.

1. Breed them. This is a capital way when

"early beef" is required.

2. Buy calves a week or two old : This is a common

method on highly rented land where a cow has
to rear several calves.

3. Buy store cattle at about fifteen to eighteen

months old, as practised on arable farms.

208 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

XXIX. FATTENING OP CATTLE.

(a) Baby Beef Production.

"Baby beef " refers to cattle which are sold fat at
an age of fourteen to twenty-two months, and a live
weight of approximately 7 to 9 cwts., 56 to 60 per cent,
of which would be carcass. Literally speaking, the
carcass is the "baby beef," and it is noted for being
very juicy, tender, and of excellent flavour. The
proportion of lean meat to fat is also comparatively
high, and, on account of its juicy qualities, is more
acceptable to the public palate, consequently a higher
price can be realised for it, and, what is of further
importance from the business point of view, the increase
can be produced at a lower cost than with animals two
years old or upwards. In other words, I cwt of
increase in live weight can be obtained with less food
in the former case than in the latter.

For baby beef the calf is liberally fed from birth
onwards, concentrated foods being used as far as is
necessary in addition to milk while the cow is suckling
the calf. After weaning, the cake is gradually increased
with the age of the calf until it is fat.

The calves may be either bred or bought for this
purpose, and reared on one of the following systems : —

i. First cross heifers. — Hereford x Dairy Short-
horn, Red Poll x Dairy Shorthorn, Aberdeen-Angus
X Dairy Shorthorn, Aberdeen-Angus x Ayrshire, or
Galloway x Ayrshire may be purchased and mated
with, say, a Shorthorn of the beef type. The calf
obtained has very much in common with a first cross
from two beef breeds, and in addition has the advantage
of being suckled by a cow which is a good milker,

PLATE XXII.

A. West Highland Cattle at Mr Bone's, Monktonhill, Ayrshire,
Scotland (p. 206).

[Photos by Author.

B. Mr Peter Coate's Champion Heifer at the Royal Agricultural
Show, Liverpool.

A splendid example of a beef type.

[To face p. 2C91.

BABY BEEF 209

on account of having been crossed with a milking
breed.

The cow suckles her own calf only, and does it
wonderfully well. In the spring, cow and calf are out
at grass, and if the grass is not abundant, the cow will
require some concentrated food and possibly hay. The
calves will soon learn to eat concentrated food with
their mothers, and should have any deficiencies in the
quantity of milk from the cow made up with cake, at the
rate of, say, I Ib. for every 100 Ibs. live weight, so as to
keep them growing and thriving as rapidly as possible
up to the time they are sold fat during the following
year. The animal at eighteen months old may then
realise 445. per live cwt, or, say, £18, which is a good
price for a fat animal at this age.

2. The following system is adopted on rich pasture-
land where the cow and calf are fattened off together,
more especially when the cow is not intended to breed
again. Hereford cows, N. Devons, or crosses between
these and other beef breeds, are timed to calve about
March. The cows may or may not be good milkers,
but help the calf on very considerably for a time. The
cow receives, say, 4 Ibs. decorticated cotton cake per
day, with the result that she fattens rapidly and may
be sold off* prime fat about July, when the calf is about
four months old. The cow is then sold, and the calf is
liberally fed with concentrated food during the autumn,
winter, and following spring months. It is summered a
second season, and then sold off at sixteen to eighteen
months old, at a live weight of about 8 cwts.

3. A third system is sometimes adopted on good
land, of buying heifers due to calve about March.
Allow them to suckle own calf for, say, five weeks,
when calf is sold off for veal at probably £4. In May

210 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

give heifer a couple of calves to rear, tied together with
neck straps and a chain about a yard long, and allow
her, if necessary, up to 4 Ibs. cotton cake per day.
Calves are then weaned about end of January or in
February. Feed calves liberally with cake, and sell off
fat in May at fourteen or fifteen months old.

(6) Fattening Cattle in Summer at Grass.

This is a very good and easy way of producing
beef, and may be adopted more especially on
moderately rented land. Two very good systems are
as follows : —

1. Bullocks may be reared as cheaply as possible up
to two years old on grass in summer, with straw and
turnips in winter. The following summer they would
in many cases receive some cake to hasten the fattening
process, so that they may be sold fat from the grass-
land.

2. Store cattle may be bought at twelve to eighteen
months old in the autumn or spring. These would
be wintered cheaply on straw and roots, then fed off
during the following summer on grass and cake.
If a bullock increases in value at grass at the rate
of IDS. or more per week, it is giving a very good
account of itself.

An interesting experiment was carried out at
Cockle Park, in fattening bullocks at grass in summer.
Yearling bullocks were purchased for this purpose at
305. per live cwt. At the beginning of the experiment
(May) they weighed on an average 5j cwts. These
were fed for twenty weeks at grass with 2 to 3 Ibs. of
cake per head per day, made up of three parts decorticated
cotton cake and one part linseed cake. The cake,
attendance (3d. per head per week), and interest (5 per

SUMMER FATTENING OF CATTLE 211

cent.) on capital outlay, amounted to 353. for the twenty
weeks, or an average of 73. per month.

The bullocks sold out at 345. per live cwt., and
when manurial residue was taken into account, left a
margin of £6 per head over their value at beginning
of experiment. Subtracting the cost of cake, attend-
ance, etc., mentioned above, viz. 353., the balance for
grazing per bullock during the twenty weeks amounts
to £4, 53., which gives an average of 48. 3d. per head
per week for grazing these bullocks.

To put this result another way : the bullocks in-
creased in value 243. per month, and with grass valued
at 43. per week, they cost 233. per month for grass,
cake, attendance, and interest.

The first thing of importance is to secure suitable
cattle for house fattening, and very often it will be
necessary to buy stores. In purchasing these stores
one should keep in mind the following points : —

1. The cattle should have been reared on a poorer

farm than that to which they are going.

2. They should be well bred (first crosses preferably),

of the right type, and with good constitutions.

3. If possible, the purchase price should be at least

5s. less per live cwt. than one expects to get
when they are fat, otherwise the transaction
is not likely to be a commercial success.

The last point involves the use of the weighbridge,
and this deserves greater encouragement. The average
farmer has very little to gain by not using it, and has
a great deal to lose. Few farmers would agree to sell

212 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

hay, beans, or cereal grains, potatoes, etc., without first
weighing them ; but it is quite as easy to estimate the
weight of oats or potatoes as that of a fat bullock.
The fairest way is always the best way in the long run.
Good feeding should be encouraged and poor feeding dis-
couraged, and selling by weight certainly has the desired
effect. Several other countries have already adopted it,
and much prefer it. Further, the frequent use of the
weighbridge for bullocks, prior to and during fattening,
shows up many important points which enable the
feeder to ascertain which system of feeding is the most
economical.

If one keeps in mind that a 7-cwt. store bullock at
305. per cwt. comes to £10, IDS., and an 8-cwt. bullock
at 305. comes to £12, it is not difficult and very
important to know, fairly approximately, what price is
being paid per hundredweight for the store animal.

In Scotland and the north of England polled
animals are generally preferred for " court or yard "
fattening, and command a higher price, more especially
because they do not injure one another with their
horns in the courts or yards, and a greater number
can be placed in a railway truck when they are bought
or sold.

Systems of Housing. — The three chief systems of
housing are — (a) In stalls, tied up by neck ; (b) in loose
boxes, with any number up to four together ; (c) in
courts or yards, with sometimes as many as twenty
together. The advantages and disadvantages of each
of these systems of housing are as follows : —

Stall Fattening. — Economises space. Each animal
gets its share of food, and its progress can
be more carefully watched. One can also

HOUSING OF CATTLE 213

vary the food to suit the particular case ; e.g.,
one animal may need a more " laxative " or a
more " binding " diet than another. It is very
suitable for horned cattle, which might damage
one another in yards, and is more economical of
litter.

Loose-box Fattening. — For single animals the box
would be about 10 feet square, and correspond-
ingly bigger for a larger number of animals. It
is therefore easy to see that a larger surface
area, of buildings will be required. The
animals receive more or less individualattention,
and the manure is well preserved. The bullocks
would require about 14 to 21 Ibs. litter
per day. Such boxes are especially useful
on farms where the court system of
housing is practised, as individual animals
can be drawn out from time to time for
special fattening. In some cases there may
be a small shed of about 150 sq. feet of floor
space opening into a yard of similar size. This
is sometimes called a " hammel."

Court Fattening — These are called yards in
England, and in some parts of Scotland the
term " reed " may be used instead of court.
The cost of labour in feeding a number of
animals together is less than in the two previous
cases, and although the larger courts, holding,
say, twenty bullocks are more convenient in the
very early stages of fattening, it is a distinct
advantage to be able to draw the more forward
animals out and place them in smaller courts,
holding, say, four or ten, for special feeding
later on.

214 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The courts or yards may be covered in entirely
with a roof; or may be open, with covered feeding-
sheds along one or more sides, under which the
animals can go at will for food or shelter.

The covered courts are generally much warmer ;
in fact, sometimes too warm if arrangements have
not been made for sufficient ventilation. Cattle can
be fattened in them to go out at Christmas, or any
time during the spring. The manure is very much
better preserved, and further, it can be carted on the
arable land and ploughed in immediately.

In the case of open yards, the chief advantages
are that they are much less costly to construct, and
give the animals plenty of fresh air. For breeding stock
this is a great advantage, especially when one re-
members that in Herefordshire, where this system is
universally practised, their breed of cattle is almost free
from cases of tuberculosis. It is a great advantage to
have the sheds facing south. For fattening cattle, how-
ever, they are generally colder, and it is difficult to fatten
cattle in them to sell off fat before spring. Much
more litter is required to keep the yards clean, and
the manure gets sadly depleted of its valuable
constituents except in dry frosty weather. The manure
has absorbed considerable quantities of water, and
requires much more carting out. It is further
necessary to cart the manure into a large heap,
so as to allow it to ferment somewhat before plough-
ing it into the land. The farmyard is always very
difficult to keep clean and tidy where there arc open
yards.

The advantages of covered courts over open yards
for fattening bullocks during the five or six months
they are kept in them in winter, have been estimated

OPEN V. COVERED CATTLE YARDS 215

at approximately 503. per bullock. This figure is
arrived at as follows : —

Loss per Bullock.

Extra carting of manure and loss by washing . ^0180

Extra litter required (i ton for winter months) . i o o
Extra food required to give same increase as in

covered courts, 6d. per head per week, say . o 12 o

£2 10 o

It is important, when covered cattle courts are
being built, to see that the ventilation is adequate, and
that, as far as possible, advantage is taken of the sun
to light up and warm the courts. Many open yards
lend themselves to having a cheap roof put over, and
on a long lease may even warrant the farmer doing it
himself if the landlord is not prepared to go to the
expense. In this way one gets the advantages of the
two systems, and brings the disadvantages to a
minimum.

Store bullocks would probably be bought in the
autumn and put on the grass fields. They would
then be given a few roots in order to accustom them
to hand-feeding, and thus prepare them for the court
fattening. Later on they would be brought into the
courts at night and given a little cake. Towards
the end of October, or during November, they would
be confined more or less to the courts or yards,
according to the district, and fattened off as quickly
as possible.

216 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

XXX. LESSONS PROM FEEDING TRIALS, ETC.

Fodder Crops. — Oat straw, barley straw, and hay
are the chief fodder crops on which the feeder has to
rely in winter. These are bulky fodders which are
produced on the farm, and this is one of the most
convenient modes of utilising them.

In Scotland, more especially Aberdeenshire and
Forfarshire, oat straw is the chief fodder crop used,
and along with roots and cake gives excellent results
with fattening bullocks, while in south Scotland and
north of England a little hay is often given with the
straw in the later stages of fattening. In the south of
England the straw is very dry and woody, on account
of the climate being warmer, hence hay has to be fed
much more freely to fattening bullocks.

When the fodder crops are hard and of inferior
quality, or are short in quantity, it will probably be
found necessary to chaff it and feed along with roots
and meals. In the former case the roots will soften
the hay or straw, and in the latter it will enable one
to make a given quantity of fodder crops keep the
stock for a longer period.

The amount of fodder crops that a bullock will eat
varies with the quantity of roots which it is receiving
and the amount of concentrates fed. E.g., in the
Edinburgh College experiments in 1906, the bullocks
receiving 90 Ibs. roots per head per day, and straw
ad lib. (lot i), consumed on an average 15 Ibs. straw,
while those receiving no to 135 Ibs. roots per head
per day (lot 2) consumed only ro Ibs. straw per head
per day. In the same experiment, where a limited
quantity of roots was fed (90 Ibs.), it appears that those
bullocks receiving a very heavy feed of concentrates

PLATE XXII F.

PLATE XXIV

A. A typical Forfarshire Farm Steading, showing covered Cattle Courts,
at Mr David Arnott's, Pitforthie, Brechin, Forfarshire.

[Photos by Author,

B. A Northamptonshire Cattle-yard, with a typical Blue-grey (Shorthorn-
Galloway) in store condition, at Mr Brassey's Home Farm, Apethorpe
Hall, Northants.

[Between pp. 216, 21<

CATTLE-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS 217

consumed a third less straw than those receiving a
fairly heavy feed of concentrates (S to 9 Ibs. per head
per day).

Experiments at Cockle Park in 1910 indicate that
for fattening bullocks 7 Ibs. hay were equal to 12 Ibs.
oat straw.

Root Crops. — These are exceedingly useful, on
account of their juicy, cooling, and laxative properties.
The order in which they are fed depends largely on
the time of maturity as well as on their keeping
properties, hence turnips are fed in the autumn. These
are followed by yellows, and the yellows by swedes.
In England, mangels may be substituted for swedes
to a greater or less extent, as the case may be. When
the leaves or " tops " are fed, they have a tendency to
scour the cattle.

Opinion differs as to which is the best way to feed
roots ; but it is generally agreed that for young bullocks
which are changing their teeth, the roots should be
given in slices, as they are more easily eaten. On the
other hand, butchers in the north-east of Scotland
maintain that cattle fed on whole roots (break their
own neeps) come out much fresher after a long and
fatiguing journey to Smithfield (London) than those
fed on pulped roots.

Pulping is generally adopted when the hay or
straw is chaffed and mixed with pulped roots and
meals. Very often a little locust-bean meal or some
treacle is put into the mixture to sweeten it, and
after being allowed to ferment from twelve to
twenty-four hours, the mixture is fed to stock.
By so doing one may expect to save about is.
per head per week on the food bill, through chaffing
and pulping.

220 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The above experiments appear to show that where
roots are sufficiently plentiful, that a daily allowance
of J to J cwt. for a two-year-old bullock is a satisfactory
quantity.

The kind of root-crop fed also deserves considera-
tion ; e.g., feeding trials at the Harper Adams
Agricultural College showed that 44-1 Ibs. mangels
were approximately equal for fattening purposes to
27 Ibs. sugar beets. Generally speaking, one may
assume the relative values of roots to be in proportion
to the dry matter they contain

When roots are scarce, it is necessary to substitute
for them concentrated foods, treacle, etc., but experi-
ments have not shown that an adequate substitute
can be found for roots ; e.g., Professor Seton reported
in 1904 (Yorkshire College), in connection with
bullock - feeding trials, that " treacle cannot satis-
factorily take the place of roots in a fattening ration.'*
Professor Middleton also found (Cockle Park, 1903)
that, with bullocks receiving 56 Ibs. roots (swedes
chiefly), this could not be effectively replaced by 28
Ibs. roots, 2j Ibs. seeds hay, \ Ib. maize meal, and
£ Ib. treacle, seeing that live weight increase in the
former case cost 443. 6d. per cwt., and in the latter 513.
per cwt.

Concentrates. — The basal part of the ration for
a fattening bullock consists of fodder crops (chiefly
oat- straw) and roots, both of which are poor in
nutrient constituents ; and as the animal consuming
these foods can only lay on flesh from the digested
nutrients which are in excess of maintenance require-
ments, it follows that concentrated foods must be
employed to raise the character of the ration, and that
such concentrated foods should be used as will make

FEEDING STANDARDS FOR BEEF CATTLE 221

up any deficiencies in the fodder crops and roots
forming the basal part of ration.

The general scheme adopted is to give each bullock
a small quantity (say 2 Ibs.) of cake per day at the
beginning of the fattening period, and to increase
this amount in both quantity and quality as fattening
proceeds. At the same time the whole ration should
be slightly laxative, and the selection of concentrates
should be such as to bring about this desired result.
When fattening begins in earnest, I Ib. of concentrated
food may be allowed for every 100 Ibs. live weight
of animal being fed.

Feeding Standards. — The composition of the
concentrated food given to two-year-old bullocks
receiving up to f cwt. roots per head per day along
with fodder crops, should conform to the following
standards ; although with a more liberal allow-
ance of roots, the percentage of fibre in concen-
trates may be increased by one-half, provided the
concentrates approximate to the higher percentage in
albuminoids : —

(a) Early stages of Fattening. — Albuminoids, 15

to 20 per cent. ; oil, 4 to 6 per cent. ; fibre,
not exceeding 1 5 per cent.

(b) Later stages of Fattening. — Albuminoids, 20 to

25 per cent.; oil, 6 to 8 per cent.; fibre, not
exceeding 10 per cent.

Rations supplying a higher percentage of albuminoids
than above are apt to be expensive, and in some cases
disappointing in the results ; e.g., Dr Paterson (Glasgow
and West of Scotland Agricultural College) had one
lot of cattle fed with decorticated cotton cake alone,

222 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

with a composition of A43%O10^%F6%, and a second lot
fed with decorticated cotton cake and maize meal, the
mixture giving a composition of A26.8%O7.42%F4.13%. The
latter ration gave a larger increase in live weight by
one-twelfth, and cost one-seventh less than was the case
with the former.

It is well known that immature roots in the
autumn tend to scour bullocks if fed in large quantities
without suitable concentrates. Bombay cotton cake
is known to have a very " binding " effect, and on
this account has a special value. Mr Bruce, Edinburgh
and East of Scotland Agricultural College, demon-
strated this point very effectively in the bullock-feeding
experiment of 1904-5.

One lot of cattle received i to ij cwts. roots per
head per day, with straw, and in addition 8 to 10 Ibs.
of concentrated food. The increase in live weight
during the first three months was as follows : —

Aver. Monthly

Concentrated Food. Increase in

Live Weight.

1st month — 8 Ibs. Bombay cotton cake . . 70-7 Ibs.

2nd „ 8 „ Bombay cotton cake . . 12-6 „

, f8 „ Bombay cotton cake)

" \2 „ linseed cake . /

The splendid return during the first month was no
doubt due to the roots being immature, and the
Bombay cotton cake counteracting the laxative effect
of the roots ; but during the second month the roots
had ripened and had not such a laxative effect, hence
the Bombay cotton cake was too binding. The addition
of a laxative food like linseed cake to the ration
improved matters considerably, and accounts for the
enormous increase during the third month. The

CATTLE-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS 223

concentrated part of ration in the third month is very
high in fibre (19-6 per cent), and would, no doubt,
have given much worse results if the roots had not been
fed so liberally.

There does not appear to be any advantage in
using highly concentrated foods during the whole of
the fattening period, for in Mr Bruce's report (1903-4)
the bullocks receiving " decorticated " cotton cake
cost 35. more per cwt. of live weight increase to produce
than was the case with those receiving Bombay cotton
cake at first. In each case the ration was partly sub-
stituted later on with linseed cake. Further, the bullocks
fed on the very rich concentrates (decorticated cotton
cake and linseed cake) gave an increase of 62 Ibs. live
weight on the average per head during the last two
months of fattening ; while those receiving Bombay
cotton cake with some linseed cake later on, gave 1 10
Ibs. live weight increase in the same time, thus
illustrating the principle that the concentrated part of
the ration should gradually improve in quality as the
fattening period advances.

The Edinburgh College experiments (Mr Bruce's
reports, 1906) also shed light on the effect of feeding
moderate as well as liberal amounts of concentrated foods.
E.g., when the bullocks were given an average daily allow-
ance of 90 Ibs. roots, with straw ad lib., the average
daily gain in live weight with those receiving on an
average 6 Ibs. Bombay cotton cake per day, was 1-78
Ibs. ; while with those bullocks getting 8 Ibs. Bombay
cotton cake per day, the daily increase in live weight
averaged 2-02 Ibs. per head per day. The bullocks
receiving the heavier ration of cake (8 Ibs. per day)
were fat a fortnight earlier than those receiving the
moderate ration (6 Ibs. per day). The final returns

222 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

One lot of cattle received I to ij cwts. roots per
head per day, with straw, and in addition 8 to 10 Ibs.
of concentrated food. The increase in live weight
during the first three months was as follows : —

Aver. Monthly

Concentrated Food. Increase in

Live Weight.

ist month — 8 Ibs. Bombay cotton cake . . 707 Ibs.

2nd „ 8 „ Bombay cotton cake . . 12-6 „

, /8 „ Bombay cotton cake)

" la „ linseed cake . J

CATTLE-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS 223

concentrated part of ration in the third month is very
high in fibre (19-6 per cent), and would, no doubt,
have given much worse results if the roots had not been
fed so liberally.

There does not appear to be any advantage in
using highly concentrated foods during the whole of
the fattening period, for in Mr Bruce's report (1903-4)
the bullocks receiving " decorticated " cotton cake
cost 33. more per cwt. of live weight increase to produce
than was the case with those receiving Bombay cotton
cake at first. In each case the ration was partly sub-
stituted later on with linseed cake. Further, the bullocks
fed on the very rich concentrates (decorticated cotton
cake and linseed cake) gave an increase of 62 Ibs. live
weight on the average per head during the last two
months of fattening ; while those receiving Bombay
cotton cake with some linseed cake later on, gave 1 10
Ibs. live weight increase in the same time, thus
illustrating the principle that the concentrated part of
the ration should gradually improve in quality as the
fattening period advances.

224 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

for feeding were approximately the same in each case
but, with the heavier feeding, the returns had to be
accepted largely in the form of manurial residue, while
with the lighter feeding (6 Ibs. per day) there was a
larger cash return.

Professor Winter of Bangor fed equal quantities
of maize meal and decorticated cotton cake to both
Welsh and Shorthorn bullocks, along with pulped
swedes, hay and straw chaff ad lib., and 5 Ibs. hay
each night. The results show that two-year-old
bullocks receiving 6 Ibs. of concentrates per day
gave an average daily increase in live weight of
1-92 Ibs., while those getting 10 Ibs. concentrates per
day only gave an average increase of 1-65 Ibs. per
day.

It is interesting to note the results of a concentrated
ration which is high in fibre. Professor Brynner Jones
carried out an experiment (1907-8, Aberystwyth)
with the fattening of bullocks. The bulky part of
ration consisted of straw chop, hay, and roots, while
the concentrates were one part Bombay cotton
cake, one part Egyptian and two parts barley meal,
giving a composition of A15^O3^F13. One lot received
6 Ibs. per head per day of concentrates, and the other
had 10 Ibs. per day. The average daily increase in the
former case was 1-37 Ibs. per head, and in the latter
1-32 Ibs. per head.

The heavy feeding of concentrates proved to be a
dead loss, and the moderate feeding was not very
satisfactory, due partly to the concentrated mixture
being suitable only for the early stages of fattening,
and at the same time rather low in oil.

This difficulty can be overcome to a large extent
by making the ration sufficiently laxative ; e.g.t in the

PLATE XXV.

{Photo by G. H. Parsons.
A. Aberdeen-Angus Shorthorn Cross Heifer, " Elita."

(Shenstone Home Farm.)

First prize in class and Reserve Champion Heifer in the show at both
Birmingham and ymithfleld (p. 206).

B. Relative Prices of different cuts of Fat Cattle.

\To facet). 224.

PLATE XXV

[To face p. 2-J».

CATTLE-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS 225

1911-12 experiments of the Edinburgh College, Mr
Bruce's report shows that when Bombay cotton cake
(4 Ibs. per head per day) was fed along with the same
weight of linseed cake, or 4f Ibs. wheat bran per head
per day, in addition to 90 Ibs. swedes and 12 Ibs. oat
straw, satisfactory results were obtained in both cases.
The " linseed-cake mixture" of concentrates gave a com-
position of A24O7iF15> and an average increase in live
weight of 2-27 Ibs. per head per day; while the "bran
mixture " had a composition of A17O4F15, and yielded
an average increase of 2-02 Ibs. per head per day.

The " bran mixture " actually left more profit, but
the great point to remember when using concentrates
high in fibre for fattening animals, is that the ration
should be made more laxative in one or more of the
following ways : —

(a) Substituting hay for straw (more especially in

England).

(b) Increasing the allowance of roots.

(<:) Including concentrates which have a laxative
tendency.

The success of both the above rations was due in
one case to including linseed cake, and in the other
bran, both of which have laxative properties. Anyhow,
cocoa-nut cake and Bombay cotton cake were fed in
the same experiment, and the mixture gave a composi-
tion of A20O7iF163; but the daily live weight increase
obtained was not so high (1-91 Ibs.), very probably due
to the mixture being richer in fibre and of a slightly
more " binding nature."

The general rule in fattening cattle is that the

226 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

allowance of concentrated food per day increases
as fattening advances, but the average increase in
live weight per day gradually diminishes as fattening
advances. The latter point is very well seen if we
take the Edinburgh Agricultural College experiments
during 1904-5 and 1906. The average increases in
live weight per month during fattening of forty-eight
bullocks were as follows : —

First month . . . 74'33 Ibs.

Second „ ... 63-51 „

Third „ ... 64-05 „

Fourth „ ... 40-00 „

Fifth „ ... 43-87 „

Although not quite mathematical, the general tendency
is apparent, and shows that the cost of producing
increase in later stages of fattening is much greater
than in the early period.

XXXI. RATIONS FOR FATTENING CATTLE.

The following daily rations are 'for bullocks of
approximately 800 Ibs. live weight (two-year-old),
which are receiving oat straw or hay along with, say,
J cwt. roots per day. The amount of cake allowed is
at the rate of I Ib. concentrated food for every 100 Ibs.
live weight. Rations i, 2, and 3 are not high in fibre,
and would go well with straw ; while 4 and 5 are fairly
high in fibre, and may be fed with hay. Ration 10
should also be fed with hay, and the remainder would
do quite well with either oat straw or hay.

In making up bulk quantities, the constituent foods
in the ration should be taken in the same proportions as
those given ; e.g., in ration I, if equal weights of each con-

RATIONS FOR BEEF CATTLE

227

stituent were taken — whether pounds, hundredweights,
or tons — the composition of the mixture1 would remain
the same.

Early periods of Fattening.

1. 2 Ibs. bean meal or gram.

2 Ibs. dried grains (brewers').
2 Ibs. crushed oats.
2 Ibs. sharps.

A OF
**tt|v' trir

2. 2 Ibs. linseed cake.

2 Ibs. Bombay cotton cake.
2 Ibs. bran (wheat).
2 Ibs. maize meal.

1 Ib. decorticated cotton
cake.

2 Ibs. Egyptian cotton cake.
2 Ibs. barley meal.

2 Ibs. rice meal.

i Ib. locust bean meal.

Later stages of Fattening.
6. 3 Ibs. decorticated cotton

cake.
5 Ibs. maize meal.

7. 2 Ibs. linseed cake.

1 Ibs. bean meal or gram.

2 Ibs. wheat bran.
2 Ibs. rice meal.

8. 2

Ibs. decorticated cotton

cake.

Ib. linseed cake.

Ib. bean meal or gram.

Ib. maize meal.

Ib. rice meal.

Ib. bran.

Ib. locust beans.

4 Ibs. Egyptian cotton cake.

3 Ibs. crushed oats.

i Ib. locust beans (kibbled).

2 Ibs. earth-nut cake.

2 Ibs. Egyptian cotton
cake.

3 Ibs. maize meal.
i Ib. locust beans.

2 Ibs. Egyptian cotton cake.

2 Ibs. dried grains.

3 Ibs. sharps.

i Ib. locust beans.

10. 2 Ibs. soya-bean cake.
2 Ibs. dried grains.
2 Ibs. rice meal.
2 Ibs. ground oats.

Condiments may be added in small quantity to any
ration that the stock do not eat with avidity.

1 Farmers wishing to make up similar concentrated mixtures
should refer to the table of analyses on p. 188.

228 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Economy in Feeding.

(a) It is wise economy to give a bunch of bullocks

in autumn a small allowance of cake (2 Ibs. per
day each). Some of the bullocks will soon show
a tendency to fatten, and these should then be
drawn out and given a fattening ration.

(b) The bullocks should not be given more each time

than they are able to clean up reasonably soon.

laxative, otherwise the increases in live weight
obtained may be far from satisfactory.

(d) The bullocks should all have their teeth seen to

at the beginning of the fattening period :
chewing or mastication is well-nigh impossible
in some cases until the offending tooth is
removed.

(e) The times of feeding should be arranged so as to

give bullocks plenty of time in the morning and
afternoon to chew their cud in quietness.
Continual disturbance of bullocks does not
tend to encourage rapid fattening.

(f) Where the concentrated food comes up to the

above feeding standard (p. 218), and is sufficiently
palatable and laxative, experiments do not
appear to show any great advantage of one
mixture of concentrates over another ; hence the
market value of concentrated foods should be
very carefully watched, so as to secure a ration
of high quality and of the desired composition
at the minimum cost (p. 122).

DATA IN CATTLE-FEEDING 229

Relation of Concentrated Pood consumed to
Beef produced.

With an average daily ration for a two-year-old
bullock of 8 Ibs. cake, 17 Ibs. straw, and J cwt. roots per
day, the average increase in live weight should be about
J cwt. per month, or 2 Ibs. per day. In Mr Bruce's
report (1906) the average increase per month was
56-6 Ibs. per bullock.

At this rate : —

4^ cwts. cake give i cwt. increase in live weight.
100 Ibs. „ „ 14 Ibs. beef (60 per cent, carcass).
57 Ibs. „ „ 8 Ibs. „ „ „

Every J cwt. of cake fed to fattening bullocks should
therefore give approximately a Smithfield stone of beef
(8 Ibs.)

Cost of producing Increase in fattening Bullocks.

With liberal feeding for two-year-old bullocks of
8 Ibs. cake per head per day along with straw and roots,
the cost of producing increase would be approximately
as follows : —

Costs ^2, 55. to £2, 153. in cake, straw, and roots, to give i cwt.
live weight increase.

Costs about £2 in cake, straw, and roots, to give i cwt. live weight
increase when manurial residue is taken into account.

Costs about ;£i, IDS. in cake, etc., to give i cwt. live weight
increase when both manurial residue and enhancement in
value of store weight of animal (say, 55. per live cwt.) is
taken into account, which must be credited to the food.

Bullocks should increase in value from £i, 55. to
£i, IDS. per month, if they are to leave a profit.

230 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The returns per acre (20 tons) of roots with bullock
feeding comes to about ;£S, without taking into account
" manurial residue." With manurial residue accounted
for, the returns would be about £10, los.

Weight of Pat Cattle by Measurement.

It is not always possible to place an animal on the
scales, consequently one has to resort to other methods
of determining the live weight. A fairly easy method
is to take the average girth in feet, and the length of
the animal from a point just behind the shoulder to the
root of the tail, also measured in feet ; then by squaring
the girth, and multiplying this number by the length in
feet, a quarter of the result so obtained will then give the
weight of the animal in imperial stones. E.g.^ an animal
with 6-foot girth, and body 6J long, would be —

Girth squared x length ~- 4 = weight in imperial stones.
6 x 6 x 6^ -r 4 = » »

36 x 6£ -f 4 = „ „

234 -r 4 = 58^ imperial stones.

The above would be approximate for a very fat
animal. If it is only moderately fat, at least one-
twentieth would have to be subtracted from the result,
and the amount deducted must be left to the judgment
of the person estimating the weight of the animal.

Score-carding Cattle.

The score card on p. 231 is used by the students in
the Winter School of Agriculture carried on by the
Herefordshire County Council.

SCORE-CARDING CATTLE 231

Hereford Bull.

Max

Points.

General Appearance, 26 points —

CARRIAGE of animal when walking .
SIZE AND WEIGHT, according to age

COLOUR AND MARKINGS

HAIR AND SKIN — Skin thick and mellow to the touch,

with thick soft hair

FLESH — Body well covered with flesh, which is firm and

mellow to the touch, and free from patchiness .
Plead and Neck , 10 points —

MASCULINE HEAD, horns slightly drooping, short face,

prominent eyes, and flesh-coloured nose ....

NECK — Good crest, clean throat ; the whole sloping

gradually on to shoulders

Fore Quarters. 8 points —

SHOULDERS not prominent ; shoulder-blades well open on

top, and well covered with flesh

Body, 24 points —

CHEST wide and deep, well filled in behind shoulders ;

large heart girth

RIBS long, and well arched

BACK AND LOIN strong and broad, level with upperline .
FLANK— Full and well down, straight underline
Hind Quarters, 27 points —

HIND QUARTERS as long and as wide as possible, well
filled in from hip-bones to root of tail. Hip-bones not

prominent. Tail well set on

UPPER THIGH full and well developed

LOWER THIGH prominent, and well fleshed down to hock .
Legs, 5 points —

LEGS — Should be short, set on well apart, strong clean bone

16
6

100

The Hereford Herd Book Society has drawn up the
following standard of merit for Hereford Cattle : —

Hereford Cattle.

The Bull should have a moderately short head ; broad fore-
head. Horns waxlike, springing straight out from side of forehead
and slightly drooping ; those with black tips or turning upwards
are not favoured,

232 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Eyes should be full and prominent.

Nose broad and clear. A black or blue nose is objectionable.

Body should be massive and cylindrical on short legs. The
upper- and underline should be straight. The neck should be
thick, with well-developed crest.

Shoulders sloping, but lying well open at top between
blades.

Chest full and deep. Ribs well sprung. Flank deep.

Buttocks broad, with lower thigh well developed, coming well
down to hocks.

Tail neatly set and evenly filled between setting-on of tail and
hip-bones (hooks). The hip-bones should not be prominent.

Whole carcass should be covered with firm flesh.

Skin should be thick and mellow to the touch, and generally
covered with thick soft hair of a rich red colour. The hair,
however, of face, top of neck, and under parts of body should
be white.

Hereford Cow should be more feminine in appearance.
Head and neck less massive, and the eyes should show a quiet,
docile disposition.

XXXII. LIVE WEIGHTS OP CATTLE OBTAINABLE
BY INTENSIVE FEEDING.

The following tables have been calculated from
the Smithfield results of 1913, and have been
specially arranged to show the possible live weights
attainable by various breeds at different ages. The
table includes the daily increase in live weight from
birth of the three prize-winners in each class where
available, as well as the average daily increase from
birth of the whole class.

The table on p. 240 gives the live and carcass
weights of those cattle entered in the carcass competi-
tions as well as the percentage of carcass to live weight,
weights of internal organs, etc., and comparative prices
per 8-lb. stone of the various carcasses.

BREED COMPETITIONS AT SMITHFIELD 233

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BREED COMPETITIONS AT SM1THFIELD 235

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BREED COMPETITIONS AT SMITHFIELD 237

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BREED COMPETITIONS AT SMITHFIELD 239

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PLATE XXVII.

*; *

[Photo by Author-

A. Ewes eating Roots off at Askkirk, near Hawick, N.B., in]
snowy weather.

[Photo by Mr J. Craw, West Foulden, Berwick.
B. The Annual Sheep-shearing is an interesting time.

PLATE XXVIII.

[Photo by Mr Craw, West Foulden, Berwick.
A. Border-Leicester, or possibly a Scotch Half-bred Ewe, with Lambs,

at Mr Craw's, Chirnside, Berwickshire.
These lambs would probably be fed for early mutton.

[Photo l>y Author*

B. Oxford or Oxford Cross Ewes in the Lambing-pen at
Mr John Clay's, Sunlaws, Roxburgh.

These lambs would probably be fed for early mutton.

[To face p. 241.

FEEDING OF SHEEP 241

XXXIII. FEEDING OP SHEEP.

The provision of food for sheep is a matter of very
great importance, but the kind of food required on
different farms varies considerably. On the mountain
and hill land the flocks may have to rely on grass
almost entirely for their living except in very severe
weather in winter, when they will, in all probability,
be given a little hay. On such farms there is no
attempt made to fatten sheep off, consequently they
are disposed of, in store condition, to lowland farmers,
who fatten them off at the age of two and a half to
three years.

The breeding ewes are generally sold after they
are five years old to lowland farmers, where they may
be fattened off, or crossed with a good fattening breed
of sheep. In the latter case, both ewes and lambs
would be fattened off the following year.

The all-important point for these farmers is how
to get an abundant supply of grass throughout the
greater part of the year, either by improving the old
grass-land, or, when land is laid down to grass, by
seeding it down with a good pasture mixture (see
p. 89). A good supply of hay should be preserved
for the snowy weather in winter.

On some lowland farms where grass is abundant
in autumn, these hill or mountain sheep may be
purchased in late August or early September, and
simply allowed to fatten themselves off on the pasture
grass, foggage, or young grass and clover seeds, which
give them a much more sappy and nutritive feed
than that on which they have been reared. In about
two to three months time they will probably be
sufficiently fat to sell, leaving 6d. to gd. and, in

242 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

some cases, is. per head per week for the grass
consumed.

It is on the mixed lowland farms, where sheep are
both bred and fattened, that one gets the widest
experience with sheep, and it is on such farms that
the following remarks are chiefly intended to apply.
The class of sheep bred on lowland farms are much
larger than the hill and mountain sheep, largely due
to the fact that they have been bred and selected for
the production of mutton at a much earlier age than
is the case on hill farms.

Feeding the Ram.

Previous to being placed with the ewes, the ram
should be specially fed for a few weeks so as to put him
into proper condition. If too fat, he should have plenty
of exercise and shorter rations. The concentrated food
should be fairly rich in albuminoids, and may well consist
of equal parts of bran and oats, allowing about I Ib. per
head per day. Many of the best breeders give each ram
a couple of doses of Epsom salts before placing him
with the ewes. The time of year when the ram would
be placed with the ewes would depend on the breed
as well as the purpose for which the lambs were
required ; e.g.y Dorset breeders place the rams with the
ewes from beginning of September to middle of October.
The same applies to other districts where early lambs
are fattened off; while in hill districts, where the
lambs are reared and sold out later on in store
condition, it is not usual to have the lambs coming
before April.

FEEDING OF SHEEP 243

Breeding Ewes.

It is a very good thing to " flush " the ewes for a few
weeks before they are put with the ram. This simply
means allowing the ewes to have a little better feeding
so as to improve their condition, but not sufficient to
make them fat. This has the dual effect of getting the
ewes mated a little earlier and of increasing the number
of twins or doubles.

During pregnancy the ewes should be fairly liberally
fed by hand if grass is not sufficiently plentiful, so as to
keep them in a thriving condition. A moderate allow-
ance of roots may be given (i I Ibs. per head per day, or,
say, a cart-load to 100) ; but frozen roots should always
be fed with caution. A little cake (J Ib. per head per
day) may also be found necessary. The ewe will then
be in fairly good condition at lambing time, produce
stronger lambs, and nurse them better.

At lambing time a sufficient supply of hay, straw,
and roots near the lambing pen is very necessary.
The ewes will be taken into it for a day or two before
lambing, more especially at night. After lambing, hay
and i to 2 Ibs. of concentrated food, made up of the
same ingredients and in the same proportions as those
for dairy cows (see p. 193), should be given, along with
some nice, succulent roots (14 to 21 Ibs. per head per
day) or grass.

Fattening Early Lambs.

The fattening of lambs for the early market is becom-
ing more and more popular, for several reasons : (a) the
lambs yield quick returns ; (b) the price, generally
speaking, is comparatively high ; (c) they are fattened off

244 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

before parasites become troublesome ; and, (</) they give
the farmer an opportunity of relieving the pastures in the
summer months, especially when he can purchase sheep
or lambs in the early autumn for feeding off the
roots. This also means that the number of sheep
kept on the farm during the year is increased, and the
profit from them greater.

Hill sheep are comparatively slow fatteners, and
possess a roaming disposition ; but they are good
milkers, make admirable mothers, and when fat, produce
a sweet, fine-grained mutton which contains a high
proportion of lean meat, hence they are mated with
a larger breed to get the first cross ewes ; then, in
order to get lambs which will grow and fatten rapidly,
it is necessary to cross these ewes with rams of
some of the larger breeds which are noted for their
mutton-producing capacities, such as the Oxford, Hamp-
shire, etc. It is further important that these cross-bred
lambs should have an aptitude to both grow and
fatten during the first few months of their lives.
Principal Lawrence found in his experiments that
while the lambs produced by the Oxford ram crossed
with Border Leicester Scotch Black-faced ewes could
be fattened off in three months, it took an extra month
to fatten the lambs produced when a Wensleydale
ram was used with similarly bred ewes. The Oxford
Down and Hampshire Down are certainly very
popular for crossing with the local ewes, although
Border Leicesters and Suffolks have given very good
results. With fairly large ewes like Romney Marsh or
Kent sheep, the South Down makes a very fine cross.

In East Lothian the three-crop ewes are sometimes
weaned from their lambs towards the end of July, so as
to get them lambing early (January or early February)

EARLY LAMB PRODUCTION 245

with the fourth crop of lambs. The ewes and their
lambs are then fattened off together. Some of the single
lambs will be sufficiently fat in about ten weeks, and
probably weigh 56 to 60 Ibs. live weight, and if of good
quality will command a high price ; in fact, those which
are sold later and at probably a month older, may not
make such a high price per head.

The ewes are given a liberal amount of concentrated
food (i to 2 Ibs.), made up in the same proportions as
the rations for dairy cows (see p. 193^, along with hay
and up to 20 Ibs. roots. In about three weeks the
lambs will begin to eat cake, etc., out of the troughs.
This is encouraged, and the lambs are fattened as
rapidly as possible. At the same time the "top"
lambs will be placed on the best grass or young
wheat and given every advantage, so as to get
them fat in time to catch the early market, say, from
mid-April up to the end of May. A large number
are sold off in June and early July, and may weigh
anywhere from 60 up to 100 Ibs.

Mr Wyllie, writing in the Transactions of the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland for
1907, mentions a novel way he has of giving the lambs
the best of the cake. The ewes are fed with " rough "
(undecorticated) coarsely broken cotton cake, and as
soon as the lambs show an inclination to eat cake,
linseed cake broken down to the size of beans is
added ; with the result that the lambs, being unable
to deal with the larger pieces of cotton cake, feed
chiefly on the linseed cake, while curiously enough,
Mr Wyllie points out, the ewes seem to prefer the
cotton cake after they have become so accustomed
to it.

In some cases the lambs may receive special and

246 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

probably more expensive feed than the ewes by
training them to eat in a little enclosure. A very useful
lamb food for this purpose may be made by mixing —

2 parts linseed cake.

1 „ soya-bean cake.

2 „ cracked maize.
2 „ crushed oats.

i „ locust beans (kibbled).
Composition of mixture, AlgaO6F6i.

They may be allowed I Ib. of above mixture to
every six or eight lambs at about a month old. At
two months they will eat very nearly J Ib. each per
day ; at three months, f Ib. ; and if kept till four
months old, may consume very nearly f Ib. per head
per day.

It is a very common sight in East Lothian to see
shelters put up at different parts of the field for
the ewes and young lambs to shelter behind. These
shelters are made of hurdles, with bunches of straw
attached, and held in the vertical position. Although
these shelters are not costly they are very effective,
so far as the purpose for which they are intended is
concerned.

The ewes would be sold off during June or July,
and where they have been bought on, say, in the
previous September, it is usual to expect that the
selling price of ewes when sold will be approximately
equal to the purchase price, the fleece being left over to
go in part payment of the food consumed during the
winter. If the ewes and lambs do well, one may
realise a balance after making allowance for grass,
roots, hay, and concentrated food, etc., of £1 to £2
for each ewe, including her lambs.

FATTENING EARLY LAMBS 247

Wintering Lambs.

On a large number of farms the ewes do not begin to
lamb until April, when grass is beginning to grow. Very
little if any concentrated food is given. About the end
of August or beginning of September the lambs are
weaned. With hill and mountain sheep, the lambs which
are retained by the farmer are usually sent in the autumn
to the lowland farms for the first winter, i.e. from ist
November to ist April, when the owner will take turnips
either per head of sheep (say, 5d. to 6d. per head per
week), the owner supplying J Ib. cake per head per day; or
per acre of roots, depending on the size of the crop. E.g.,
at West Linton, Peebleshire, they are sometimes let at
£6, I os. per acre ; the farmer supplies the hay, and carts
the cake for the owner. For wintering lambs the price
is about £5 to £6 per score, or even more. These lambs
would return to the hills and mountains the following
spring, where they would remain over the second
winter, and in the following autumn (two and a half
years old) those which were not required for stock
purposes would be sold at the great " store " sales to
the arable farmers, and in some cases dairy farmers,
to be fattened off for mutton during the late autumn,
winter, or spring months as the case may be. Some
of the lambs sent down from the hills and mountains
to lowland farms may be fattened off during the first
winter, say at nine months old, in the same way as
those bred on the lowland farms.

Mutton Production.

In the early part of the autumn, the hill and
mountain sheep which pass through the auction marts
in thousands supply the lowland farmer with store

248 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

sheep, which he can fatten off on his root-land. The
particular name given to sheep which are being
fattened off on roots with hay and cake varies in
different parts of the kingdom ; e.g., in Scotland a very
common term is "hoggets" for weaned lambs up to
first shear, and "hoggs" after that. In the Midlands
and south of England the term " teg " is often used
instead of " hoggs." The chief difficulty about the term
"hogg" is that one may very easily confuse it with
another kind of farm animal spelt with one " g " instead
of two.

These sheep would first of all be kept on the grass-
land for a few weeks before being taken on to the
turnip-land. The arable farmer who goes in for
mutton production has reduced to a fine art the
method of growing root or forage crops, so as to have
a succession of succulent food for the sheep during the
winter months. E.g., with root crops, white-fleshed
turnips generally come first. These are followed by
the "yellows," or yellow-fleshed turnips, and are
themselves succeeded by swedes. In the Midlands
and south of England, mangels may be fed to a larger
extent than swedes. Mangels must be put into heaps
or " tumps," and protected during the winter frosts, but
it is more or less optional in the case of the turnips,
yellows and swedes. Generally speaking, they are
not carted off the land, although in some cases, say,
six drills may be alternately carted off and six left ; the
idea being more to get the sheep to manure the field
uniformly and well. In some cases the treading of
the sheep would be an advantage, in others not.

The three common methods of feeding the roots off
are — (a) open grazing; (b} folding, and eating the roots
whole ; (c) eating the roots whole through feeding-

PLATE XXIX.

PLATE XXX.

[Photo by Author.
A. Fattening Hoggs at Mr Herbertson's, Fans, Earlston, Berwickshire.

The cutter-cart cuts the roots as the horse moves on, which saves much
hand labour.

B. Relative Prices of different cuts of a Fat Sheep.

[Between pp. 248, 249.

MUTTON PRODUCTION 249

hurdles ; (d) folding the sheep, and feeding on cut
roots.

Open Grazing. — The sheep are turned into a root-
field, and allowed to roam at large. This saves netting
or hurdles, but a large amount of food is wasted
partly through the sheep having too much freedom, and
partly through some of the roots becoming tainted. A
further consideration on sandy soils, is that sand gets
washed or carried by the feet of the sheep on to the
roots, with the result that a considerable amount of
sand may find its way into the stomachs of the sheep,
and possibly cause death. With regard to the manure,
this is not scattered uniformly over the field, which is a
great disadvantage.

Folding Sheep. — In this method the sheep are
confined by nets, wire-netting, or hurdles to a com-
paratively small area of roots, depending partly on the
number being fed, length of nets, etc. In East Lothian
about 50 yards by 50 yards is the area enclosed. The
sheep are consequently confined to this area till the
roots are practically all eaten up, before another break
is given to them. The nets, etc., are kept fairly close
up behind them, so as to keep the sheep from manuring
one patch more than another. The advantages here are
that the roots go very much further, and the field is
uniformly manured. The sheep are more settled,
and fatten faster. When a change is being made
from turnips to swedes, the net or hurdle should be
fixed so as to include a few rows of swedes, etc. In
this way the sheep gradually become accustomed to the
change.

In fine, dry weather it is often advisable to fold the
sheep on the wettest and most exposed part of the
field, and vice versa. Changes to a fresh break should

250 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

generally be made in the late morning, or early after-
noon, when the leaves or tops are comparatively dry,
in order to prevent the food from scouring the sheep.
Roughly speaking, an acre (2O-ton crop) of swedes
would keep about 300 sheep for a week, allowing
21 Ibs. per head per day. An acre (i 5 -ton crop)
would keep 300 sheep for a week if only 16 Ibs. roots
were allowed per head per day.

Some farmers sow a little salt on the tops of the first
break of turnips, to prevent the sheep from becoming
" hoven " or " blown."

Feeding-hurdle System. — This is intended to apply
to the system of using feeding-hurdles against the part
which has to be fed off. It differs from the folding
system, inasmuch as the hurdles are daily shifted
forward against the roots. The sheep are not allowed
to get their feet on or taint the roots, but may put their
heads between the bars of these feeding-hurdles and
eat the roots at leisure. This is a very economical
way, although the expense of getting these hurdles is
greater than that of the ordinary hurdles, and much
more -than that of getting nets or wire-netting. There
is also more trouble in moving the hurdles forward each
day.

This method is very conveniently applied in feeding
off rape, vetches, and other forage crops.

Feeding Cut Roots. — The roots, which have been
topped, tailed, and put into small heaps or " tumps,"
are covered over with " tops," rough grass, straw, or soil,
to protect them from the frost. These heaps are made
of a convenient size, and placed at such a distance
apart as to expedite feeding. The sheep would then
be divided up into lots not exceeding 100 each, and
drafted so as to have the forward ones together for

FEEDING ROOTS TO SHEEP 251

special feeding. It is usual to have a separate cutter
(which cuts the roots into long chips or fingers) for
every one or two lots of sheep, and as fast as one heap
becomes used up, the hurdles are pushed forward
against the next. At the same time the land gets
uniformly manured.

The sheep are thus relieved of the trouble of
breaking their own roots, and as soon as November
comes in they may be handicapped by teething changes
taking place. They can still get their full quantity of
roots with a minimum amount of trouble, thus giving
them longer periods of rest. It is not advisable to fill
the troughs full of cut roots, say, morning and after-
noon, because so many get pulled over the side of the
trough and wasted. Further, in frosty weather any roots
which are not cleaned up immediately, become frozen,
and on this account are much less suitable for fattening
purposes. It is much better to feed the cut roots three
to four times a day, and give them no more than they
can clean up immediately.

The feeding of cut roots for sheep which are being
fattened off for mutton is very general, at any rate after
the supply of soft turnips has become exhausted. The
quantity allowed with hay and cake is anywhere from
14 to 21 Ibs. per head per day, depending on the size
of sheep, etc. Sheep have been fattened off on hay and
roots, but the mortality is apt to be high, and the cost
of producing live-weight increase considerably in-
creased. Feeding the roots cut reduces the mortality,
as the sheep get very little sand with their roots
compared with the practice of feeding the roots off
whole on the ground.

Principal Lawrence found that sheep receiving
cake, hay, and turnips increased in live weight at the

252 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

average rate of 2f Ibs. per head per week during a
period of twelve weeks, while those receiving cake,
hay, and grass only increased at the average rate of
\ Ib. per head per day.

In the same series of experiments it appears that
the sheep being fed on turnip-land, with a given
ration increased in live weight on an average during
twelve weeks of 2f Ibs. per head per day, while a
similar lot, similarly fed on grass-land, only increased
at the rate of if Ibs. per head per day.

With cut swedes one penny per head per week may
be charged for each hogg to cover cost of pulling and
heaping swedes, and another Jd. per head per week for
cleaning and cutting them for feeding.

One man can cut roots for, and look after a flock of
200 to 300 sheep. If, however, the roots are fed whole,
he will manage to look after 400 sheep which are being
folded on roots.

Forage and Fodder Crops for Sheep.

Forage Crops. — Forage crops are often used in the
Midland counties and south of England to supply the
succulent food for sheep. The chief crops used for this
purpose would be lucerne, vetches, trifolium, rape,
mustard, broadcast turnips, rye, oats, and vetches, etc.
(see p. 93). Turnip tops and broadcast turnips are
very useful remedies for lambs which are suffering from
husk or hoose. Of course it is always advisable to treat
lambs suffering from such complaints in the early
stages.

Hay. — Hay is a bulky, and comparatively speaking
a dry food, which is fairly high in fibre. This dryness
and binding (fibrous) nature of hay makes it extremely

FEEDING BULKY FOODS TO SHEEP 253

useful for feeding to " hoggs " which are receiving roots.
The roots are cooling and laxative, and the hay tends
to counteract the latter effect. It is very interesting to
find that the hoggs regulate their diet instinctively.
E.g., in the 1904-5 experiments of the Edinburgh.
Agricultural College, where approximately \2\ Ibs.
roots per head per day were allowed to each lot, with
hay ad lib., it was found that those lots receiving " roots
and hay alone," and " roots, hay, and linseed cake," both
of which are fairly laxative rations, consumed approxi-
mately double the amount of hay of those receiving
concentrates high in fibre (Bombay cotton cake or
Bombay cotton cake and dried grains), with the same
allowance of roots. This is an important practical
point to keep in mind when compounding rations for
sheep.

Oat straw may be used to economise the hay, but
it is more usual to feed it chaffed and mixed with
meals.

The allowance of hay per head per day varies from
\ Ib. to i-J Ibs. A good average would be I lb., and
in reserving hay for hoggs on roots, it is generally
sufficient to allow I ton for every acre of roots to be
fed off. If hay is scarce, it may all be chaffed and
fed in troughs. The hay chaff and cake need not be
mixed together at all, as the former can be fed in
special troughs with backs on, and the latter in the
usual kind of trough.

Concentrated Poods.

The primary object in feeding concentrates to sheep
is to supply sufficient nutrient material to provide for
an adequate surplus over what is required for mainten-

254 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

ance, and thus encourage rapid fattening. In the
autumn, turnips fed before they are properly ripe tend
to scour the sheep. This tendency can be largely
counteracted by feeding liberal amounts of Bombay
cotton cake as long as this tendency lasts ; but as the
turnips mature, or a change is made on to swedes,
it will generally be found necessary to give concen-
trates of a more laxative tendency than Bombay cotton
cake. If Egyptian is rather too binding, one cannot do
better than include some linseed cake, which has a
laxative tendency, and generally gives good results
when given to fattening sheep.

Many of the rations for fattening cattle (see p. 227),
would do very well for sheep, but it is important to
keep in mind that sheep have their concentrated foods
put into troughs in the dry state, and in the open field,
where finely ground meals would generally be inadvis-
able, as the wind would blow much away. It is there-
fore best to feed maize, beans, oats, gram, soy beans,
etc., cracked or coarsely bruised, so as to overcome
this difficulty. Rations 2 and 4 would be very suitable
for the first two months of fattening. A capital mixture
could also be made by taking : —

1 part soya-bean cake.

2 parts Egyptian cotton cake.
2 „ dried brewers' grains.
2 „ cracked maize.

i part locust beans (kibbled).

In the later stages of fattening, rations 6, 8,
and 9 would give very good results, but the food
should be fed in a much coarser condition than the

RATIONS FOR SHEEP 255

meal form. Another very good concentrated mixture
for the later stages of fattening would be : —

2 parts linseed cake.

i part Egyptian cotton cake.
i „ crushed beans.
i ,, crushed oats.

3 parts cracked maize.

Little molassine or other condimental food.

The amount of concentrated food to allow for sheep
fattening on roots would be at the rate of about i Ib.
per 100 Ibs. live weight. It takes three to four months
to fatten average sheep off, and during this time they
should give a weekly increase in live weight of 2 to
3 Ibs. per head per week.

In the Newton Rigg experiments, the hoggs
fattened with turnips and hay alone gave an average
live weight increase of i^ Ibs. per week, while those
receiving about \ Ib. of cake and corn per head per day
gave an increase of 2j Ibs. per head per week. The
extra cake and corn very nearly doubled the rate of
increase.

Useful Data from Feeding Trials.

The following particulars have been calculated
from Mr Bruce's reports on the three years' (1903-6)
experiments carried out by the Edinburgh and East
of Scotland College of Agriculture. These results are
important, seeing that a large number of sheep were
experimented with each year, and the experiments
were carried out in accordance with ordinary farm
practice. Their value is therefore considerably
enhanced.

256

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

In order to get average figures, the writer selected
the four best lots in each year, and as the number
of sheep varied from year to year, the results have
been calculated per 100 sheep each year. The figures
for the three years have been added together, and
thus apply to a flock of 300 sheep. Roots have been
charged at IDS. per ton ; hay, £3 to £3, ics. ; the cake
and meals at market prices during the three years.

Average Figures for Fattening a Flock of 300 Sheep on Roots.

For 300 Sheep.

If extended " at same rate " to
slightly longer periods, would be
for 300 Sheep.

Duration of fattening

period

9* days

IO5 days

112 days

Cake and meal con-

sumed

20,417 Ibs.

22,806 Ibs.

24,326 Ibs.

Roots consumed

180 tons

201 tons

214 tons

Cost of hay, cake, and

meal

^69, 45. 3d.

/77, 6s. 2d.

/82, 95.. 3d.

Cost of hay, cake,

meal, and roots

^159, 45. 3d.

^178, os. od.

^189, 143. 3d.

Live weight increase .

10,215 Ibs.

11,411 Ibs.

12,171 Ibs.

Mutton produced, tak-

ing 68 per cent.* in-

crease to be carcass .

6,946 Ibs.

7,759 Ibs.

8,276 Ibs.

Increase in "value" of

sheep

^170, 95. od.

^190, 8s. od.

/203, os. od.

* Lawes and Gilbert's figure.

The following average deductions can therefore be
made : —

Hoggs can be fattened off on roots with cake and hay in
thirteen and a half weeks ; 2 Ibs. concentrated food have
given i Ib. of live weight increase. Each sheep has
consumed 12 cwts. roots during the average fattening
period of ninety-four days, or 14^ Ibs. per head per day.
With a 20-ton crop, this is equal to 100 sheep for every
3 acres of roots.

PLATE XXXI.

[To face p. 256.

DATA FROM FEEDING TRIALS 257

Cost of hay, cake, and meal for ninety-four days was 45. 7jd.

per sheep. With manurial residue taken into account,

the cost would be 35. 3d. ; *.*., 70 per cent, gross cost.
Cost of hay, cake, meal and roots for ninety-four days, los. 7^d.

per sheep (9^d. per head per week) ; with manurial residue

taken into account, 75. 5jd. (6^d. per week).
Each sheep has increased in live weight at the rate of 2-53 Ibs.

per week during fattening.
Cost of producing 14 Ibs. live weight increase was 52-376.

„ „ 100 „ „ „ 315. 2d.

„ „ 112 „ „ „ 343. i id.

With manurial residue taken into account, these figures would

be 35. 3^d., 2 is. 9|d., and 245. 5jd. respectively.
Each i Ib. of mutton has cost 5^d. to produce.
8 Ibs. „ „ 35. 8d. „

14 „ „ „ 6s. 5d. „

The sheep increased in value at the rate of lojd.
per head per week during the time they were being
experimentally fed, but one must bear in mind they
were revalued at the beginning of the experimental
period. These experiments also show that one can
purchase store sheep at approximately the same price
per pound as one expects to get for them live weight
when fattened. The store price has varied from 4d.
to 4|d. per Ib. live weight, and the sale price has
come out exactly the same in 1903-4, and less than
Jd. per Ib. difference in the other two years. The sheep
weighed 9 to 10 stones live weight when fat.

The return for an acre (20 tons) of roots consumed,
after paying for hay, cake, and meal at market price,
comes out, on an average of the three years' experi-
ments1 with the four best lots, at £11, is. gross; or
with the manurial value of the cake and hay taken
into account, £12, iSs. 4d. per acre.

Some farmers consider that the cost of shepherding
1 Edinburgh Agricultural College.

258

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

CARCASS COMPETITIONS FOR SHEEP 259

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260 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

for the winter month as well as the average loss are
balanced by the manurial residue, while others allow
id. to 2d. per head per week for the shepherd's wages,
including removal of hurdles, troughs, carting hay, etc.
For losses by deaths, etc., fd. to id. per head per week
is charged. These figures place the value of the
manurial residue at from 2d. to 3d. per sheep per week,
which is approximately 30 per cent, of the total value
put on the food.

XXXIV. CARCASS COMPETITIONS FOR SHEEP.

The preceding table (pp. 258-9) gives the result of
the carcass competitions at Smithfield Show in 1913.
As column I was given in hundredweights, quarters,
and pounds, and column 2 in Smithfield stones, it was
considered advisable to calculate them both to pounds,
so that the relation between live weight and dead
weight may be all the more easily followed. Column 3
was then calculated to show the proportion of carcass to
live weight.

The breed of each sheep is given, but, unfortunately,
the exact age is not available. There are, no doubt,
practical difficulties in recording the individual ages
of sheep which are kept in large flocks, especially when
they are intended to be fed off as early as possible
for mutton.

XXXV. FEEDING OF PIGS.

The pig ought to occupy a more prominent position
on many farms than it does at present. No other farm
animal will give so large a return for the food consumed
as the pig, hence it has been called the " most economical

PIG-FEEDING 261

meat-making machine at the farmer's disposal." It is
a somewhat despised animal, because it readily accepts
scraps of meat from the house, or, in some cases, the
leavings of the well-fed bullock ; but when properly
fed and housed the pig supplies the finest bacon, which
is so indispensable on the English breakfast table.

On many farms there are so-called " bare periods,"
when there is little to sell. If, however, pigs are kept,
it is possible to arrange matters so as to have a number
of porkers or bacon pigs to sell at such times, which
will largely overcome this difficulty.

Pigs also come in very handy for consuming and
turning to profitable account the by-products of the
dairy — skim milk, buttermilk, whey, house wash, etc. — as
well as " brown " and small potatoes from the farm
which have little commercial value. Tail oats, wheat,
or barley can also be very profitably utilised for pig-
feeding.

The first essential for winter pig-feeding is a
comfortable house. The so-called " pig cot " is
generally cold, wet, and dirty ; in fact, a most unsatis-
factory house for a pig. The best house is a small
horse-box, which is warmer and much cleaner than the
pig cot; pigs thrive better in it, and the box when
empty can be utilised for all classes of stock.

The economy of keeping pigs in warm, comfortable
boxes in winter is well emphasised by experiments
conducted by Grisdale at the Ottawa Experiment Station,
with pigs weighing on an average about 70 Ibs. live
weight. One lot was kept for sixty days during winter
housed in ordinary wooden cabins, while the other lot
was kept in the much warmer and more comfortable
piggery at the Experiment Station. Both lots of pigs
made approximately the same live weight increase, but

262 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

those kept in the wooden cabins required 526 Ibs. of
meals to produce 100 Ibs. live weight increase, while those
in the warmer station piggeries required only 366 Ibs.
meals to produce the same increase, thus effecting a
saving of 44 per cent, on the food consumed.

With brood sows, Grisdale found in a similar
experiment that those kept in the wooden cabins during
winter required 25 per cent, more food. In England
the same thing holds good, although the difference may
not be quite so great as in Canada, where the winter
is very severe.

Feeding the Brood Sow.

Sows kept for breeding purposes should be
descended from a strain which is noted for being good
mothers of quiet disposition, and for having litters of eight
to fourteen piglings of uniform size.

The sow should be of a good type, which means that
the bones of legs should be fine, head and shoulders
neat, with broad back, long deep sides, and heavy hind
quarters. Care should be taken to avoid any sows
which have been fed largely on flesh meat, as they are
apt to worry their piglings at farrowing time.

There is generally a good demand for six- to ten-
week-old pigs on dairy farms about May, to consume
the dairy by-products, and on arable farms there is a
similar demand in autumn to consume " brown " and
small potatoes, etc. ; hence sows should if possible be
timed to farrow about February for spring demand, and
late August or early September for autumn demand.

For two or three weeks after the sow has been
weaned from her litter, continue the feeding in order
to allow her to recover from the severe strain of nursing
before mating her again. This treatment is considered

FEEDING THE BROOD SOW 263

to have the effect of increasing the size and evenness
of the litter.

During pregnancy, it is a good plan to give the sow a
run where she can get plenty of fresh air and exercise.
An open shed in which she can feed, sleep, and find
shelter is a great convenience. The food would vary
somewhat with the time of year, but during first half
of pregnancy period may consist of house wash or whey
with some tail oats or barley meal in it. If necessary,
some roots or other succulent food may be given.

For a couple of months before farrowing, the sow
should receive a richer diet, in order to secure proper
development of the young, and for this purpose some
barley meal, ground oats, bran, etc., may be added to
the diet.

About a week before farrowing, " guards " should
be placed round the usual bed of the sow, about 7
inches high and 7 inches from wall, to prevent the sow
squeezing her piglings to death against the wall. The
box would be much better with the walls lime-washed,
and the floor thoroughly disinfected.

Her diet should be somewhat restricted, and bran
mashes given according to the necessities of the case.
The bran mashes should be continued for a day or two
after farrowing ; after that they should be gradually
fortified with scalded meals (sharps, maize, or barley
meal, etc.) made into a thin slop with separated milk,
house wash, etc., and fed warm.

Professor Henry states that a sow in full milk
yields about 3 quarts milk per day, and during the whole
suckling period something like 50 galls. Professor
Davies (Wisconsin) estimates that one-third of the food
goes to support the body of a milking sow and two-thirds
for milk-production,

264 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The sow should be turned into the field or other
enclosure periodically to get fresh air and exercise,
eat grass or other succulent foods, and any earthy
matter which nature demands.

After nursing the piglings for six weeks, she
should be taken away from them for gradually
increasing periods each day, and weaned from them
altogether at the end of eight weeks. The cost of
keeping a breeding sow for a year varies considerably,
but £6 may be taken as an average figure.

Feeding the Piglings.

Newly born piglings average about 2 Ibs. live
weight, and require no feeding beyond their mother's
milk during the first three weeks. If the piglings have
abnormally long teeth at birth which cut the sow's teats,
they should have them nipped off short with a pair of
sharp wire-cutters ; otherwise there will probably be
difficulty in rearing them.

At three to four weeks of age, the piglings show an
inclination to eat, and should then receive in a small
trough when the sow is out, a nice thin gruel made of
scalded sharps, to which is added, after cooling, some
new cow's milk, and fed four times a day. The amount
of gruel given should be gradually increased as the
piglings grow in size. A little bran should then be
added to the sharps, and the whole cow's milk
gradually substituted with skim or separated milk.
The quantity fed each time should never exceed what
they are able to clean up immediately.

In summer the piglings should be turned out into
an enclosure to exercise their muscles, develop their
limbs, and pick up grass as well as earthy matter, which
appears to be necessary to keep the piglings in good

FEEDING PIGLINGS 265

health. In winter, small coals, cinders, or a grass turf
should be given to them in the pig-box. Precipitated
chalk to the extent of J to J oz. per head per day,
may also be added to their daily food.

The piglings grow rapidly, and give a splendid
return for food consumed, seeing that 3 Ibs. of meal
will easily give i Ib. live weight increase. Professor
Davies (Wisconsin) found by weighing piglings at 6.30
A.M. and 6.30 P.M., that 71 per cent, of the increase in
live weight was made in the night, and only 29 per cent,
in daytime.

Although good breeding is important with pigs
intended for fattening, it has been said that " half the
breed of a pig goes in at the mouth," which emphasises
the importance of the care required in fattening pigs off
rapidly and economically.

After weaning, the meal ration should be gradually
increased both in quantity and variety, but maize meal
should not be fed too freely to young growing pigs.
Professor Fuller (Wisconsin) proved that maize alone
was not a suitable food by itself for young growing pigs,
on account of its lack of bone-forming material. He
reared two lots, one with maize alone, and another
with a mixture of maize meal, wheat middlings, and
skim milk. The pigs fed on maize alone weighed at
end of this experiment 84 to 103 Ibs., and in the latter
case 130 to 190 Ibs. Further, the thigh bones of the
mixed meal and skim milk lot were 50 per cent,
stronger than those fed on maize alone.

If fed at all, maize meal should be fed in conjunction
with foods which are both rich in albuminoids and
mineral constituents, such as pea and bean meal.

The piglings may either be fed off at once for pork,
or run on cheaply for a time and fed off later for bacon.

266 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Store Pigs.

The system of allowing newly weaned pigs to " run
on " is still practised to a large extent. The idea is,
very largely, to feed them as cheaply as possible on a
ration that will allow them to develop their muscles
and grow bigger frames without fattening, so that at
three, four, or five months old they may be either
housed and fed off quickly for bacon by the breeder,
or sold to farmers, managers of creameries, cheese
factories, etc., who have dairy by-products at their
disposal which can be utilised for this purpose.

The foods which are generally available for these
stores in summer are grass, cabbages, clover, lucerne,
and other green foods. In autumn they will pick up
acorns, apples, etc. ; but some meal, along with house
wash, whey, etc., should also be given daily. This
system of feeding stores allows the pigs considerable
freedom, and it is good policy to give most of the
meal stirred into house wash, etc., at the end of the
day, so as to train them to come home at night. The
meals should simply be stirred into the liquid and given
without any previous scalding at all.

In the winter there is generally on arable and
mixed farms a plentiful supply of roots, e.g., mangels,
swedes, kohl rabi, potatoes, and tail corn, etc. The
roots are best pulped, and the grain bruised. In cold
weather, at any rate, the slop is best fed warm, otherwise
some of the food is wasted in raising the temperature
of the food up to body temperature. This may be
done either by mashing the newly boiled potatoes up
with the meals and feeding at once, or by adding water
which is sufficiently warm to bring the mixture to body
temperature,

FEEDING OF PIGS 267

XXXVI. FATTENING PIGS.

Where accommodation permits, it is a good plan to
breed own pigs so as to obtain them at cost price.
Piglings should not be allowed to lose their pigling
flesh, but fattened off as quickly as possible.

During recent years the demand for heavy scaling
pigs has largely declined, and, generally speaking, only
those pigs which do not exceed 150 Ibs. dressed weight
are keenly sought after. Above this weight the price
per stone diminishes in proportion to the amount by
which the above weight is exceeded.

Early Maturity. — The smaller carcasses generally
contain a larger proportion of lean meat, which is at
the same time more juicy, and commands the top price
when sold. Further, the increase obtained from a
given weight of food is greater in the earlier stages of
a pig's life than is the case when it is mature. The
advantages consequently lie on the side of early
maturity.

The following table gives the results obtained in
Denmark (Copenhagen) from pigs which were fattened
off at different ages : —

Size of Pig.
Live Weight.

Up to 35 Ibs.

35 „ 75 „
75 » ri5 »
115 » 155 »

* Meal Equivalent
to give 1 Ib.
Increase.

. 3 Ibs.

. 376 „

• 4-35 »
• 4-45 »

Size of Pig.

Live Weight.
155 to 195 Ibs.
195 „ 235 „
235 „ 275 „
275 „ 315 „

* Meal Equivalent,
to give 1 Ib.
Increase.

. 4-66 Ibs.
• 5-40 „
. 6-14 „
• 6-39 „

* The "meal equivalent" is obtained by taking 6 Ibs. separated milk, 12 Ibs.
whey, or 4 Ibs. boiled potatoes as being equal to 1 Ib. meal.

These figures show that pigs over 200 Ibs. live

weight required double the amount of food to give the

same unit increase in live weight as those which are
under 35 Ibs. live weight.

268

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Pork Production.

Here it is important to get thick, well-made pigs
with large, well-developed hind quarters. The selected
breed should also be one that will grow and fatten at
the same time, e.g., Middle White Yorkshire, or crosses
between Middle White and Berkshire or Large White
Yorkshire and Berkshire. The white boar used should
be well bred, so as to impress his white colour on the
offspring as far as possible.

The weaned pigs should be fed three or four times
a day on bran and sharps mixed with skim milk. At
about three months old one of the rations on p. 284
may be given at the rate of I to 2 Ibs. meal per 100
Ibs. live weight. The food should be made into a thin
slop during the early stages of fattening, but the
amount of -added liquid should be gradually diminished
as fattening proceeds (see table below).

Professor Henry holds that if more than I gall, of
separated milk is given to every 3^ Ibs. meal, the results
become much less satisfactory as the proportion of the
liquid is increased.

In Denmark the fattening period is divided into four
stages according to live weight, and the ration for each of
these stages is stated in its meal equivalent ; i.e., 6 Ibs. of
separated milk is equal to I Ib. meal, and so on. E.g. —

Milk.

Meals.

Boots or
Green Food.

I. Up to 40 Ibs. live

weight. Ration
II. 40 to 60 Ibs. live

30 per cent.

70 per cent.

...

weight. Ration

25 ,,

70 „

5 per cent.

III. 60 to 120 Ibs. live

weight. Ration

15 »

10 »

IV. 120 to 200 Ibs. live

weight. Ration

83 „

5 „

PORK PRODUCTION 269

This means, so far as the separated milk and meals
are concerned, that —

Up to ten weeks old, the meal is mixed at the rate of 4 Ibs. to

i gall, skim milk.
Ten to sixteen weeks old, the meal is mixed at the rate of 5 Ibs. to

i gall, skim milk.
Sixteen to twenty-four weeks old, the meal is mixed at the rate of

8 Ibs. to i gall, skim milk.
Twenty-four to thirty-six weeks old, the meal is mixed at the

rate of 6 Ibs. to | gall, skim milk.

In this case the food is prepared a day ahead, and the
meal consists of barley, maize, ground oats, and sharps.
Pigs up to 60 Ibs. live weight get charcoal, and when
necessary for the bowels, a little cod-liver oil. The
various green crops, including roots, should be fed to
the pigs, if available, in the earlier stages of fattening,
but this should be gradually reduced as fattening
advances.

On the London market the small porkers at four
to five months old, and weighing 60 to 70 Ibs. dressed
weight, meet a ready sale and fetch the highest price
per stone. In the North of England the demand is
for a larger pig, scaling 140 to 150 Ibs. dressed weight.
This weight can easily be obtained by the time the
pig is seven months old.

Bacon Pigs.

The term " bacon pig " is generally applied to those
which are sold off fat, as soon as they have attained a
minimum live weight of 2 cwts., or, say, 150 to 160 Ibs.
dressed carcass. For bacon it is not so important to
have short, thick pigs with well-developed joints, but
what is required is a big-framed body with long and

270 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

deep sides, so as to give as large sides of bacon
as possible, containing a good proportion of lean
meat. Store pigs intended for bacon may be reared
or bought.

Breeding Stores. — The pigs which were reared on
the farm would, no doubt, be weaned about eight weeks
old, and be left out in the field during the summer
months, provided they had a shed in which to
eat and sleep. In the field they would get plenty of
green, succulent food (grass), and with a morning and
evening ration of, say, I to i J Ibs. meals allowed each
time, stirred into some skim milk, whey, house wash,
etc., they would grow big frames and develop their
muscles.

At three to four months of age, the pigs should be
put up to fatten, and be fed with some succulent foods
such as pulped potatoes, swedes, mangels, green vetches
or clover, cut cabbages, etc., depending on time of year,
in addition to skim milk, whey or buttermilk, and meals.
The food should be fed warm (say 90° F.) during the
fattening period, otherwise part of the food has to be
utilised to raise the food to the temperature of the
body, leaving a smaller surplus for the formation of
flesh, fat, etc.

As fattening proceeds, the green or succulent part
of the ration given each day should be gradually
reduced, and scarcely included in the ration at all during
the last three or four weeks of the fattening period.
The meals, which probably constitute a third part by
weight of the roots or succulent food given, need to be
gradually increased. At the same time, the amount of
liquid added to meals to make them sloppy should be
gradually reduced in quantity, from I gall, to, say, J
gall, per head per day. Too many roots or boiled

FEEDING BACON PIGS 271

potatoes make the flesh lacking in firmness, and the
proportion -of fat to lean meat too high. The liquid
part of ration should gradually be reduced so as to get
the increase of a much drier nature before the animal
is killed. After two to three months of fattening (say,
six months old) the pig will be 150 Ibs. to 170 Ibs.
carcass weight.

In Wiltshire, J gall, of raw linseed oil per day is
added for every sixty-four pigs, in the food, in order
to keep their bowels in order.

In Berkshire it is a common practice to sour the
food (i.e. soak it for a few hours until it begins to
ferment) before feeding to the pigs, the idea being that
the pigs fatten better and are less liable to suffer from
costiveness.

Buying Stores. — In Wiltshire, store pigs are usually
bought when they are about four months old, or a live
weight of 90 to 140 Ibs. These are fed for seven to
fourteen weeks on such a ration as separated milk,
barley meal, and boiled potatoes, and killed off fat at
a live weight of 133 to 236 Ibs. These may increase
in live weight at the rate of 2 Ibs. or over per head
per day.

In " winter " the roots given will consist of boiled
potatoes, pulped mangels, swedes, or turnips, and
chopped cabbages ; while in " summer " the succulent
food will be derived from grass, green vetches, and
other forage crops. Both in summer and winter
economy should be studied, and any by-products made
use of. There are many foods on a farm which are
most useful for fattening purposes, although their
market value is not high — e.g., " tail " corn (cereal grains),
small and brown potatoes, green forage crops, skim
milk, buttermilk, house wash, and whey.

272 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

XXXVII. FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH PIGS.

It will now be interesting to examine any experi-
mental evidence there is available, with regard to the
suitability or value of various foods for fattening of
pigs for the production of bacon.

(a) Liquids.

Separated Milk v. Whey. — Kellner gave the com-
parative values of these two foods as 8 to 6 — i.e., the
value of the former was one and one-third times as
great as the latter.

In the West of Scotland Agricultural College
experiments at Kilmarnock (1905-8), the relative
values came out as 8J to 6, which come very near
Kellner's figures.

The Danish standard for these two liquids gives
separated milk double the value of whey for fattening
purposes (i.e. 6 Ibs. skim milk, or 12 Ibs. whey are equal
to i Ib. meal). This difference is most likely due to
the fact that in the Kilmarnock experiments skim
milk and whey were fed in approximately equal
quantities per head per day, whereas in Denmark
only half the quantity of skim milk is given as com-
pared with whey. Few pig-feeders would be able to
make an average daily allowance of 4 galls, separated
milk per head, as half of this is generally considered
liberal ; consequently the Danish figure had better be
adhered to in this case for skim milk, viz., that it is
double the value of whey. At the Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa, 6 Ibs. separated milk was found to be
equivalent to I Ib. meal, which confirms the Danish
figure.

PLATE XXXII.

[Photo by Miss Birrdl, Edinburgh.
A. Young Pigs of Large White Breed coming on well for Early Pork.

[Photo by Mr Eldred Walker.
B. Gloucester Old Spot Breed.

This breed is now being revived, and the new Society has just issued its first
volume of the Herd Book. The breed has already gained world-wide fame.
Mr Eldred Walker, Chew Stoke, Bristol, is the Hon. Secretary.

[To face p. 273.

PIG-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS

273

The equivalent of whey in terms of barley meal, in
the Kilmarnock experiments, gives the figure 13 Ibs.
whey (ij galls.) as being equal to i Ib. meal. The
Danish equivalent for whey is 12 Ibs., hence they agree
very closely.

Separated Milk and Meals.— In the Wilts County
Council experiments the object was to find the most
suitable food for producing the finest bacon. In order
to facilitate comparison, the " meal equivalents " l of
the various rations are given, which show the amount
of food required to give unit increase : —

Barley Meal Lot.

Maize Meal Lot.

Ration.

Dressed

Live

Dressed

Live

Weight.

Ibs.

Barley alone or maize alone . .

5-77

4.67

5-68

4.92

,, or maize + cooked potatoes .

5-26

3-90

5-78

4-5°

,, „ + separated milk .

5-72

4.46

4*83

4-05

„ ,, + separated milk +

cooked potatoes

5-14

3-93

4-59

3-76

The above table shows that, with a mixture of
barley or maize meal with either cooked potatoes or
separated milk, less food is required to give unit increase
in live weight than was the case'with meal alone. In
the case of the lot of pigs receiving barley meal,
separated milk, and cooked potatoes, a " meal equivalent "
of 3-93 Ibs. gave unit increase (i Ib.). When, however,
maize was used in place of barley meal, 3-76 Ibs. meal or
its equivalent gave the same result.

Barley meal and cooked potatoes gave better results
than barley meal and separated milk, while with maize

See p. 115.

274

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

meal the reverse was the case, possibly due to the
potatoes depressing the digestibility of the maize.

Danish experiments have shown again and again
that for bacon production, skim milk, cooked potatoes,
and meals give excellent results.

Whey and Meals. — Much light has been shed on
this point by the Kilmarnock experiments, the results
of which are given in the following table : —

Meal Equivalent to give
1 Ib. Increase in Live

Ration.

Weight.

1907.

1908.

It*.

Ibs.

c-II

4 .jo

and maize meal

4.44

4-29

and barley meal . • .

4.6l

4-66

and nnize meal (ist period of fattening)

maize, and barley meal (2nd period of
fattening)

• 4-59

4.44

and barley meal (3rd period of fattening)

and barley meal (ist period) .

}

barley, and maize meal (2nd period)

I 4-32

4-39

and maize meal (3rd period) .

This shows that whey and maize meal give a useful
combination of foods so far as live weight increase is
concerned.

Barley and maize meals with whey have given very
good results. When increase alone is taken into
account, it appears best to commence with barley meal
and gradually substitute it with maize meal. The chief
drawback is, the maize tends to give a yellowish
coloured flesh.

In 1909 and 1910, mixtures of barley meal with
maize, and barley meal with rice meal, were both fed

PIG-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS

275

with whey, when the following meal equivalents were
required to produce I Ib. live weight increase : —

1909.

1910.

Ibs.

Whey, barley

meal, and maize meal
,, rice meal

3'27
4.84

3-41
3-41

In 1909, barley meal and maize meal gave very much
better results, but in 1910 there was little difference.

It was found possible to increase the live weight of the
pigs from 100 to 210 Ibs. in nine to ten weeks by feeding
with separated milk and barley meal. When the ration
was whey and maize meal, it required eleven weeks to pro-
duce the same increase. The proportion of maize to whey
which gave best results was 2 Ibs. meal to 2 J galls, whey.

(6) Root Crops.

Mangels and Meals. — In the Wiltshire County
Council experiments the following results were ob-
tained, and have been calculated to the meal equiva-
lents required for I Ib. live weight increase : —

Ration.

Meal Equivalent to give 1 Ib.
Increase.

Dressed Weight.

Live Weight.

Maize and beans
,, beans, and mangels

Ibs.

5-17
5-02

Ibs.
4.04
3-95

and peas
peas, and mangels

5-26

5-70

4-1 1
4-41

and oats
oats, and mangels

7-n
5.86

5-36
4-63

and mangels .
and potatoes .

8-16
5-78

6-67
4-So

276

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Live weight increase was produced with a lower
meal equivalent when mangels were fed with either
maize and beans, or maize and oats. With maize
and peas the reverse was the case. With maize
meal alone, mangels did not produce live weight
increase with so low a meal equivalent as was the case
with cooked potatoes.

Cooked v. Raw Potatoes. — Experiments carried
out during recent years have had the effect of causing
some feeders to discontinue the practice of cooking
foods for pigs. A common opinion at the present time
is, that potatoes are practically the only food generally
used for pigs, that should be cooked.

Professor Brynner Jones, in his third Annual Report
(1907-8), gives the results of an interesting experiment
to determine the relative value of raw and cooked
potatoes. The average daily ration consisted of 2f Ibs.
potatoes, 2 Ibs. mixed barley and maize meals, " the
food being given cold," along with sufficient water to
make it of suitable consistency : the total live weight
increases were as follows : —

Cooked
Potatoes.

Raw (Pulped)
Potatoes.

1st experiment — five
2nd „

Total live

pigs fed for eight weeks
„ six

weight increases .

Ibs.

154
127

Ibs.
123
108

28l

231

The lot receiving cooked (boiled) potatoes gave
50 Ibs. greater live weight increase, but the value of
this increase is largely swallowed up in the cost of
cooking potatoes. It should be noticed that the food

PIG-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS 277

was given " cold." Curiously enough, Mr Stevenson in
the Kilmarnock experiments got better results with
raw than cooked potatoes when fed along with an
average daily ration of 2§ galls, whey, 2-^- Ibs. maize
and barley meals, and 2§ Ibs. potatoes. In the case of
raw potatoes a meal equivalent of 3-75 Ibs. was required
to give unit increase in live weight, while with cooked
potatoes a meal equivalent of 4-16 Ibs. was required to
give the same increase.

Professor Henry (Wisconsin) found, with a ration
where the proportion of maize to potatoes was as 1:3,
that 4-42 Ibs. cooked potatoes were equal to I Ib. maize
meal ; while in Denmark, Fjord of Copenhagen showed
that 4 Ibs. cooked potatoes were equal to I Ib. meal.
The Danish standard gives a higher value to cooked
than raw potatoes. According to their standard, I Ib.
of cooked potatoes is equal to ij Ibs. raw potatoes.

Professor Brynner Jones had the cooked potatoes
fed " cold " in the above experiments, and it is possible
that the good results attributed to cooking potatoes
are largely due to the practice of mashing the cooked
potatoes up with meals, and feeding the mixture
" warm," in the form of a moderately thin slop or gruel.

At Kilmarnock, Mr Stevenson shows that food fed
warm gives a larger live weight increase than food fed
cold. Pigs receiving whey and Paisley flour required
the following " meal equivalents " to give I Ib. live
weight increase : —

How Fed.

Meal Equivalent to give 1 Ib.
Increase in Live Weight.

Cold
Warm ....

Ibs.
7-04
6-26

278

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Winter v. Summer Fattening. — In 1894 the Copen-
hagen Experiment Station published a Report (No. 30)
of 199 feeding trials with 2500 pigs, part of which
number had been fed in summer and part in winter.
The ordinary rations were fed, viz., separated milk,
whey, roots, and meals, and these have been reduced
to their meal equivalent :—

Live Weight in Pounds of Pigs.

Meal Equivalent to give 1 Ib.
Increase in Live Weight.

Summer.

Winter.

35 to 75 Ibs
75 „ U5 ,,

115 M 155 11

Average meal equivalent to give I Ib.
live weight increase

Ibs.

3-97
4-57

Ibs.

3-71
4.46
5-16

| 4-00

4-44

These results indicate that J Ib. less meal is required
on an average to produce unit live weight increase in
summer than winter, hence it is more economical to
fatten pigs in summer.

Barley meal and maize meal are very common
constituents of pig meals, consequently the following
table has been calculated from Mr Corbett's 1898
Report of the Wiltshire Experiments. The table shows
what combinations from other sources were employed
with barley and maize meals respectively, and with
what results. The meal equivalent for the whole
ration has been calculated on the Danish system (see
p. 115). The results are as follows : —

PIG-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS

279

.Foods given along with Maize or
Barley Meals.

Meal Equivalent to give 1 Ib. Increase.

Maize Meal Lot.

Barley Meal Lot.

Dressed
Weight.

Live

Weight.

Dressed
Weight.

Live
Weight.

Separated milk and cooked potatoes
Separated milk ....
Bean meal and mangels

Ibs.

4'59
4-83
5-02

Ibs.
3-76
4-05
3-95
4.04
4-1 1
4.92
4-41
4-36
4-67
4-50
4-63
5-36
6-67

Ibs.
5'H

5-72

5-77

6.07
5-26

5-99

Ibs.

3-93
4.46

4-67

4-32
3-90

4-78

Pea meal
None (maize or barley meal alone)
Pea meal and mangels .
Cotton cake and treacle .
Bran

5-26
5-68
5-70
5-7i
5-73
• S-78
5-86
7-n

Cooked potatoes ....
Ground oats and mangels

Maize germ

The above figures show that maize meal has given
better results than barley meal, except in cases where
these foods were fed with cooked potatoes only, when
barley meal did much better than maize meal. This
conclusion is supported by the Kilmarnock experiments.

In both cases the results show that for bacon pro-
duction, both maize and. barley meals are improved
when blended with foods fairly rich in albuminoids,
but at the same time poor in oil and low in fibre.

Foods and Quality of Bacon.

The flesh of the fat pig intended for bacon should
be firm in all parts, with a good proportion of lean
meat to fat in the carcass. The fat should also be a
clear white colour. The flesh of the pig is naturally
rather soft (cattle and sheep just the opposite), hence
foods are required which are poor in oil and rich in

280 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

carbohydrates, e.g., barley meal, pea and bean meal, etc.
Kellner found that pigs kept in cold surroundings
produce an oily fat, while a firmer fat was produced
when pigs were kept warmer. A warm, comfortable
box is therefore a very important point.

Soft Bacon may be produced by feeding large
quantities of roots or other green foods during the later
stages of fattening. These make the proportion of fat
to lean too large, and at the same time give a soft flesh.

Generally speaking, concentrated foods containing
5 per cent, or over of fat give a soft bacon when they
are fed alone to pigs. A very common example is
maize meal, which gives a soft, yellowish fat. Professor
Henry states that the lard of pigs fed on maize may
contain 92 per cent, olein (liquid fat), while that from
similar pigs fed on ground oats, pea and barley meals,
may only contain 67 per cent, olein. Maize meal,
however, gives rapid increases in live weight, and
where the purchaser is unwilling to give more per
pound for high quality bacon, its use will naturally be
continued for bacon production.

Other pig-foods fairly rich in oil, are linseed cake,
rice meal, wheat bran, brewers' grains, distillery waste,
oatmeal, fish, etc. These should not usually constitute
more than a quarter to a third of the total meals fed,
the remainder consisting of meals which are low in oil.

Soft bacon may also be caused by keeping the pigs
short of exercise, marketing them before they are
finished, too long after finishing, or by undue forcing.

The Wiltshire experiments showed that cooked
potatoes and maize meal decreased the proportion of
best pigs. Neither in the Wiltshire nor Kilmarnock
experiments did maize alone give such a high propor-
tion of best pigs as barley meal.

PLATE XXXIII.

[Photo ly Sport & General.

A. Middle White Berkshire Cross-bred Pigs — First and Champion at
Smithfield Show. Owned by Mr A. Hiscock, Motcombe, Shaftesbury, Dorset.

B. Relative Prices of different cuts of Fat Pig.

[To face p. 281.

FOOD AND QUALITY OF BACON 281

Firm Bacon. — Roots and green foods should be
gradually reduced in the later stages of fattening ; in
fact, they may be discontinued altogether during the
last two or three weeks of the fattening period. The
liquid portion of ration should also be gradually reduced,
until the meals in it make it quite a thick slop by the
end of the fattening period. This method appears to
rid the tissues of excess of water before the animal is
killed, thus giving a firmer bacon.

Firm bacon is produced by those concentrated foods
which are poor in fat and fairly rich in albuminoids ;
e.g., barley meal, skim milk, pea meal, bean meal,
etc. Pea meal and bean meal are rich in albumin-
oids, and if fed in excess of 3 or 4 Ibs. per head
per day, would probably produce flesh which was too
firm. Barley meal and bran gave the best quality of
carcass in the Wiltshire experiments.

Tainted Bacon. — Distillery refuse gives a watery, soft
flesh which glistens when cut. It becomes tainted, and
soon goes bad. Kitchen scraps may make the fat too oily.
Fish-fed pigs yield a flesh which tastes distinctly fishy.

Grading Carcasses. — The following gives the method
of classifying dressed carcasses of pigs adopted by
Messrs Harris & Co. in the Wiltshire bacon trade : —

Dressed Weight.

A. Highest price . 130 Ibs. to 190 Ibs. . under 2^ ins.

B. Second price . 190 Ibs. to 210 Ibs. . under 2^ ins.

C. Third price . 210 Ibs. to 230 Ibs. . under 2f ins.

D. Fourth price . over 230 Ibs. . under 3 ins.
Soft pigs and small pigs have deductions from scale prices.

Dressed Weight. — Includes everything but intestines,
sweetbread, kidneys, spleen, liver, heart, skirt, and
lungs. (The feet, head, brain, tongue, and fleck are
included.) Shrinkage allowed = 2 Ibs. per pig.

282

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Whole Grain v. Meals. — Experiments show that, for
fattening purposes, grain fed in the meal form gives
better results than the whole grain. E.g., trials at
Wisconsin (America) showed that it required 5-01 Ibs.
maize and sharps to produce I Ib. live weight increase,
while with maize "meal" and sharps only 4-71 Ibs.
were required — a saving of 6 per cent.

Rommel (America) has calculated the results of
nine trials, at five stations, and the average amount of
whole grain (peas, wheat, rye, oats, and barley) to give
i Ib. live weight increase was 4-73 Ibs. When these
were ground to a meal, 4- 1 5 Ibs. gave the same result
—a saving of 12 per cent.

XXXVIII. RATIONS FOR PIGS.

Where separated milk and small potatoes are
available, the ration for a pig would, no doubt, consist
of these two foods along with suitable meals. The
quantities required per pig would depend to a large
extent on its size and age, as represented in the
following table : —

Typical Daily Ration for a Pig from Six Weeks Old to
Twenty-Eight Weeks when Fat.

Age.

Meal
per day.

Separated
Milk per day.

Boiled
Potatoes.

Approximate Live Weight
at end of each Period.

weeks.

Ibs.

qts.

Ibs.

6 to 8

...

8 12

ito i

12 16

i ii 3

112

16 20

155

20 24

190

24 26

2JO

26 28

224

RATIONS FOR PIGS 283

At this rate a pig would have consumed by the time
it is twenty-eight weeks old —

444 Ibs. meals.

112 galls, separated milk.

287 Ibs. potatoes.

Typical Meal Mixtures.1 — The meal mixtures fed to
pigs should not be so rich in albuminoids and oil as
the concentrated foods given to fattening cattle or
sheep (ruminants), seeing that bulky fibrous foods (hay
and straw) are not included in a pig's ration ; in fact,
pigs have only a very limited capacity for digesting
foods high in fibre. Much less labour is, therefore,
required to masticate and deal with the food as it
passes through the food canal of the pig.

Another point to bear in mind is that the fat in
the carcass of a pig is naturally rather soft, con-
sequently the meal mixtures fed should be low in oil,
so as to give a less oily and therefore firmer meat.

Skim milk has a costive, and whey a laxative
tendency ; hence the meal mixture fed with skim milk
should have a slightly laxative tendency, and that fed
with whey a costive or binding tendency.

The following " standard " for the meal mixture will
then be found very suitable : —

Albuminoids, 10 to 15 per cent. Oil, 2 to 4 per cent.
Fibre, less than 6 per cent.

When the meal mixture is fed with whey or water,
the albuminoids should, generally speaking, approxi-
mate to the maximum percentage (15 per cent), while
with skim or separated milk it may approximate to
the lower (10 per cent).

1 Farmers wishing to make up similar meal mixtures should
refer to special table of analyses on p. 188.

284

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The ten meal mixtures given below come within
the limits of the above standard, and would give good
results with an allowance of I gall, separated milk
per day, or 2 galls, whey : —

With Separated Milk. With Whey.

i. Barley meal alone. 6. Fine middlings alone.

Barley meal, two parts.
Oatmeal, one part.

7. Barley meal, one part.
Maize meal, one part.

3. Barley meal, three parts.
Rice meal, one part.

Al<H°4F5f

4. Maize meal, one part.
Wheat bran, one part.

Barley meal, one part, 9.

Fine middlings (seconds),
one part.

A12|°3|F5J-

5. Maize meal, one part.

Wheat bran, one part. 10.

Wheat meal, one part.
Gram, one part.

Maize meal, two parts.
Coarse middlings (thirds),

one part.
Pea meal, one part.

Ground oats, one part.
Wheat meal, one part.
Barley meal, one part.
Bean meal, one part.

Dried grains, one part.
Maize, one part.
Wheat meal, two parts.

Food and Increase.

Experiments show that 4 to 5 Ibs. of meal are

generally sufficient to give I Ib. increase in

live weight.
At this rate I cwt. meal should give about 22 Ibs.

(ij stones) live weight increase.
If carcass weight is taken to be 83 per cent, of

the live weight, f cwt. meals should give

about 14 Ibs. increase of carcass.

FEEDING DATA FOR PIGS

285

It takes about 4 cwts. meals to feed a pig up to

seven months of age (say, 165 Ibs. live weight).

The cost of feeding pigs from birth to eighteen

weeks of age would amount to 155. per head for food

alone, while for a seven months old pig the cost of

food may vary from £2 to £2, los. When looked at

from the point of view of carcass, it would cost from

4s. 6d. to 55. 6d. in food to produce 14 Ibs. of increase

(pork).

Approximate Weight of Foods by Measure.

Name of Food.

Weight per
Bushel.

Weight per
Gallon.

Weight per
Quart.

One Pound
Measures.

Ibs.

qt.

Beans, peas, vetches .

2-0

o-5

Wheat ....

7£

o-5

Maize, dari, millet

1-9

o-5

Barley, flax seed, wheatmeal

i-7

0-6

Buckwheat, cotton-seed meal

i-6

0-6

Maize meal and cotton-seed

meal ....

i-5

0-7

Oats, barley meal, and

ground linseed cake

1-4

0-7

Wheat middlings

I'O

Ground oats

0-9

!•!

Dried grains

«i

0-6

1-7

Wheat bran

o-5

2-0

Malt coombs (cummins)

• 14

0-4

2-5

Potatoes ....

Mangels ....

...

Swedes ....

...

Turnips ....

. . .

Carrots ....

...

Wet brewers' grains .

...

Hay (chaffed) .

Oat straw (chaffed) .

...

Oat chaff ....

...

N.B.— 56 Ibs. per bush. = If Ibs. per qt.; 40 Ibs. per bush. = 1J Ibs. per. qt. ; 24 Ibs.
per bush. = § lb. per qt. ; 8 Ibs. per bush. = J Ib. per qt.

286 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Curing Bacon and Hams.

These are generally placed on a stone shelf in a
cool, airy room after the hide or skin has been well
rubbed with salt. The shelf should have been covered
with a thin layer of salt before the bacon or ham is
put on it. Salt is then rubbed on the other side, after
which a good layer is sprinkled on the upper side.
The sides of bacon should be left for at least seven
days before they are hung up.

In the case of hams, saltpetre should be well rubbed
into the knuckle, and it should be well covered with
salt, left for a week, and then rubbed again with fresh
salt, and allowed to remain for another week or ten
days before it is hung up.

The bones are sometimes removed, and the bacon
placed in a pickle of common salt, saltpetre, and sugar,
for two to four days. The bacon is then partially dried,
rolled up after it has firmed a little, and then sent
out for sale. This bacon is not cured to keep very
long.

Wiltshire bacon has the hair singed off in a furnace ;
it is then placed in a cold room at, say, 42° K, and
sometimes a specially prepared brine is pumped into
the blood-vessels by a force-pump. The bacon is then
cured with salt, in a slow, mild manner, for sixteen to
eighteen days, then dried for a few days, dusted
with pease meal, and mildly smoked for a couple of
days. Bacon which is chilled before curing is con-
sidered to have a better colour.

York and Cumberland hams are placed in salt for
two to three weeks. The hams are then washed and
afterwards hung up in an airy place, when they dry
slowly. When sufficiently firm they may be sold.

BACON AND HAM CURING 287

The following scale of points for bacon and hams
are those which are used at the Dairy Show, London : —

Bacon.

Points.

Style and workmanship . . .15

Suitability of side, i.e. its general proportions 20
Firmness of fat . . . . .10

Fineness of rind ..... 5

Colour . . . . . .20

Flavour, which includes mildness . . 30

IOO

Hams.

Points.

Style and workmanship . . .15

Suitability of ham, i.e. its proportions . . 20

Firmness of fat . . . . .10

Fineness of rind . . . . 5

Colour . . ... . .20

Flavour, which includes mildness . . 30

100

Breed and Carcass Contests at Smithfield.

The following tables (pp. 288-91) give the results of
the Smithfield breed and carcass competitions. In the
breed competitions the results show what live weights
may be obtained at a given age by high feeding. The
daily increase from birth of the prize-winners are given
as well as the average daily gain of the whole class.

In the carcass contests the results have been
arranged and calculated to give the live weight,
carcass weight, and the proportion of carcass to live
weight, in addition to the weight of pluck and relative
values per 8-lb. stone of the different carcasses.

The figures generally should be regarded as rather
high, seeing the pigs were all fattened for exhibition.

288

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

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BREED COMPETITIONS FOR PIGS 289

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290

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

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CARCASS COMPETITIONS FOR PIGS 291

Smithfleld Show, 1913 — Pigs. Carcass Contests.

BREED.

Age.

Live Weight.

1 Carcass Weight

Percentage of
Carcass Weight
to Live Weight.

Carcass
Award.

ll
s»

One Pig not exceeding 100

Ibs. Live Weight—

wks. dys.

Ibs.

S. D.

Berkshire .

15 2

78-4

1st

6 8

Large White

13 0

75-3

2nd

6 o

Berkshire .

14 4

72-1

3rd

6 o

,, ...

20 4

78-4

4th

5 6

11 ...

16 3

77-8

5th

5 4

i) ...

15 0

78-1

r. & h.c.

5 I0

Middle White .

22 4

7^-9

...

Berkshire .

20 2

75-8

...

»» ...

I4 6

78.2

One Pig not exceeding

Nine Months Old,

above IOO Ibs., and

not exceeding 22O Ibs.

Live Weight —

Berkshire .

28 5

184

79-8

ist & ch.

5 10

» ...

37 o

162

132

8lvL

2nd

4 10

,, ...

29 6

190

158

83.1

3rd

4 °

Large White Berkshire

35 6

186

152

80-6

4th

4 o

One Pig not exceeding

Twelve Months Old,

above 22O Ibs., and

not exceeding 300 Ibs.

Live Weight —

Berkshire .

50 2

265

216

81.5

10*

ist

4 8

»> ...

43 3

26l 211

80-8

10"

2nd

3 10

46 6

248

210

84.6

3rd

4 2

,, ...

44 I

247

197

79-7

4th

3 10

One Pig above 160 Ibs.,

and not exceeding 240

Ibs. Live Weight, best

suited for manufac-

ture of Bacon —

Berkshire .

35 i

204

ifo

78.4

ist&r.ch.

5 2

,, ...

43 3

214

81-7

2nd

4. 4

Large White Berkshire

35 6

204

168

82.3

3rd

T^ ^

4 6

Large White

44 3

273

229

83-8

4th

3 10

Berkshire .

36 2

208

165

79-3

r. & h.c.

4 4

,, ...

31 o

1 80

145

80-5

»> ...

33 5

233

202

86-7

...

£ cwt. = 56 Ibs. ; | cwt. = 84 Ibs. ; 1 cwt. = 112 Ibs. ; 2 cwts. = 224 Ibs.

292

THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

XXXIX. FEEDING SICK ANIMALS.
Horses.

It is rather important for the horse owner to have a
fair knowledge of the manner in which horses suffering
from any of the commoner ailments should be fed.
Obviously the first thing of importance is to know
roughly how to diagnose the various ailments, before
suitable feeding can be prescribed.

There will be no attempt made here to give any-
thing more than a mere outline of the various ailments
of horses, except what is considered necessary to enable
one to feed the horse intelligently in the primary stages
of sickness. Full accounts must be sought in special
works on the subject.

The body temperature of the animal, character of
the pulse, and breathing (respiration), often indicate
the ailment from which an animal is suffering. If one
knows the normal body temperature, the normal pulse-
beats, and the normal mode and rate of breathing, then
any departure from these either in one direction or the
other guides one very considerably in making an accurate
diagnosis. Of course some experience is necessary ;
but if one can only learn to decide when an ailment is
serious or not, then this knowledge is most useful.

The normal body temperatures of the common farm
animals are all given together, for convenience, in the
following table : —

Respirations.

Pulse-beats.

Temperature.

per minute.

deg. F.

Horse .

8 to 12

35 to 40

99-5

12 to 1 6

40 to 60

IOI

Pig . .

16 to 20

60 to 70

102

Sheep .

20 to 30

70 to 80

IOI

DIAGNOSING AILING HORSES 293

The value of each of these indications will be dealt
with separately, and in the reverse order.

Temperature. — When the temperature of a sick
horse is found to be above normal, it is said to have
a fever. Many of these fevers are contagious and
require especial care ; e.g., influenza, glanders, strangles,
etc. To ascertain whether a horse is feverish or not,
a clinical thermometer is inserted in the rectum, and
as the normal temperature of a horse is 99-5° (Fahr.),
an excess of 2° to 8° F. indicates that the horse is
feverish. The higher the temperature, the more urgent
is the case.

Pulse-beats vary in many respects, and may be
grouped as follows : — (a) Frequent and Infrequent. —
This refers simply to the number of beats per minute,
and when the frequency rises ten to twenty beats per
minute above normal, this may indicate feverishness ;
e.g., influenza, strangles, epizootic lymphangitis (weed),
or possibly an ailment like flatulent colic. Infrequent
and irregular pulses are often associated with diseases
of the heart and brain.

(b) Quick or slow beats. — These do not refer to the
number per minute at all, but simply to the suddenness
(jerkiness) or slowness with which the beat takes
place. Quick beats are noticeable in cases of anthrax,
laminitis, spasmodic colic, etc.

(c) Hard or soft pulses. — Some pulses yield to the
pressure of the fingers, and are called "soft," while
those which only yield to the pressure of the fingers
with difficulty, are called "hard." Hard pulses are
found in such cases as epizootic lymphangitis, laminitis
(fever of the feet), and enteritis. Weak pulses are
found in animals suffering from diarrhoea, superpurga-
tion, etc.

294 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

(d) Large or small pulses. — Small pulses are to be
found in laminitis, gastritis (inflammation of mucous
membrane of the stomach), and enteritis.

Combinations of these varieties of pulses are
common ; e.g^ frequent and hard, as in epizootic
lymphangitis ; quick and hard in laminitis ; small and
hard in gastritis ; or persistently small, quick, and hard,
as in enteritis.

Respirations. — These may be : (a) quicker than
normal, as in laminitis, gastritis, spasmodic and flatulent
colic, etc. ; (b) laboured, as in lockjaw, etc. ; (c) shallow,
as in flatulent colic. The breathing may be hurried, as
in laminitis, and in some cases spasmodic. Combina-
tions of these are found in the case of flatulent colic,
where the breathing is quickened and shallow.

Ailments of Horses.

The many ailments affecting horses may be placed
for convenience into four classes, viz.: — (i) fevers; (2)
ailments due to errors of diet; (3) ailments due to
errors of management ; (4) bony diseases. The general
treatment in these cases is as follows : —

(i) Fevers. — Several ailments of horses are caused
by the presence and activity of certain bacteria in the
system. As these bacteria multiply in the body they
secrete what are known as "toxins," which have an
injurious effect on the animal body, causing generally
speaking a rise in the temperature of from 2° to 10° F.
above the normal. When contact with an affected
animal is necessary before a horse can contract the
disease, it is called "contagious," as in the case of
glanders ; but when the organism is light and capable
of being carried about in the air, so that a horse
may inhale the organism without coming in actual

TREATMENT OF FEVERISH HORSES 295

contact with an affected animal, it is called "in-
fectious," as in the case of strangles. The time
which elapses between the intake of the organism
and the time when the horse begins to show feverish
symptoms is called the "period of incubation," which
in the case of glanders varies from three to nine
days. To diagnose the particular fever, it is
sometimes necessary to examine the blood or affected
part microscopically in order to identify the specific
organism. External symptoms, such as nose dis-
charges (catarrh), superficial swellings or abscesses,
mode of breathing, condition of pulse-beats, etc.,
would all be taken into account, and are very
characteristic.

The part affected may help very considerably in
diagnosing a fever ; e.g., glanders affects the chest
(lungs and air-passages), while farcy chiefly affects the
tissues immediately under the skin, more especially
the hind leg, where there are generally hard,
painful, beaded lymphatic vessels, and unhealthy
spreading ulcers. These details are more or less for
the expert ; but the farmer can easily ascertain with a
clinical thermometer whether his ailing horse is feverish
or not, and if so, he should at once adopt the following
general treatment: —

(a) Isolate the affected animal into a warm, well-
ventilated box.

(£) Disinfect any farm buildings in which the horse
has been kept.

(c) Give the horse a laxative diet, and something
very easily digested, such as a warm " bran and
linseed " mash. (For preparation of mashes, see
p. 298.)

296 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

(d) Saltpetre to the extent of \ oz. per day may be
added to the drinking-water or the concentrated
food.

For valuable animals it would generally be wise to
seek expert advice without delay, but in other cases this
treatment may be tried for a short time, to see if the
fever abates.

(2) Ailments due to Errors of Diet. — These ail-
ments generally affect the abdomen (colic), the legs
(weed), or the feet (laminitis), and may be caused by
one or more of the following errors of diet : —

(a] Giving cold water while the body is hot, or in

some cases by watering the horse immediately

after the feed of corn, through the coarse,

unsoftened oat - hulls being washed into the

bowels.
(£) Feeding wheat, new barley, and in some cases

new oats in comparatively large quantities

per day.
(c] Giving horses musty and mouldy hay, or hay

while in the " sweat."
(d) Sudden changes of diet from dry food (hay and

corn) to green food (vetches, pasture grass), or

vice versa.

(e] Giving big feeds to a tired and hungry horse.
(/) Feeding too much nutritious food (say, excess

of beans), and too little exercise.

Prevention is always better than cure, and probably
the most important thing to keep in mind when feeding
horses is that " all changes of diet should be gradual."
Sudden changes of diet are always danger ous^

FEEDING AILING HORSES 297

The general treatment in these cases is : —

(a) Keep the animal comfortable and warm.
(&) Give a purgative immediately.
(c) Feed with nice warm bran mashes, or strengthen-
ing gruels (p. 298).

(3) Ailments due to Errors of Management. — The

ailments falling under this head are: cracked heels,
grease, thrush, canker of the foot, mud fever, etc.
These may be caused to some extent through allowing
horses to stand on heating manure ; leaving the legs
wet and dirty ; washing the legs with cold water, and
not drying them ; etc.
Treat as follows : —

(a) Give a purgative.

(&) Clean the wounds and, in case of feet, treat with
burnt alum.

and linseed " mash (p. 298).

(d) Saltpetre, \ oz. per day, may be given to each

horse on its food or in its drinking-water.

(4) Bony Diseases. — Bony enlargements may be
found on the legs of a horse, often causing pain or
lameness. The commonest diseases are ringbone, side-
bone, splints, and bone spavins. Navicular disease may
possibly be included in this group.

These are all hereditary. They may be caused,
however, by bruises, sprains, concussion of feet while
trotting on hard roads, etc.

The general treatment would be : —

(a) Give rest and a purgative medicine.

(b) If affected part of foot is hot, it may be

immersed in cold water.

298 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

(V) The diet should be light and laxative.
(d) If practicable, let horse run out to grass.

Mashes and Gruels.

The use of mashes and gruels are so important in
feeding sick animals, that they may be dealt with here.
The food must be easily digestible, very strengthening,
strictly limited in quantity, and attractive. Hard,
indigestible food should be avoided at such times. It
is also important that the food should have a laxative
tendency. These conditions are mostly fulfilled in
some of the common mashes, provided they have been
made with ordinary care.

Bran Mash. — Take 3 Ibs. bran and pour over it
3 pints of boiling water, add one dessertspoonful of
salt, and stir well. Cover over, leave for half an hour,
and feed to horse when cool enough. The horse should
not be given more than it is able to clean up each time,
as it quickly goes sour, and this does not then improve
the horse's appetite.

Bran and Linseed Mash. — For catarrhal affections
and ailments of the respiratory organs, linseed should
be included in the bran mash. It is at the same time
laxative, strengthening, and especially useful in the
case of hide-bound animals. In this case \ Ib. linseed,
i Ib. bran, i dessertspoonful of salt, are taken and
stirred in 3 quarts of water. Boil gently one to two
hours, taking care to stir frequently. It may then be
fed as a jelly-like mash, or in some cases mixed with
nice sweet hay chop.

Malt mashes or malt coombs mashes may be made
in the same way.

Linseed Jelly. — This is a very useful laxative that

MAKING MASHES AND GRUELS 299

may also be employed with healthy horses at suitable
intervals. It can be made by soaking the flax seed in
cold water for twelve hours, at the rate of I Ib. to the
gallon of water per horse. The seed should be stirred
periodically, and by this time the seeds will have burst,
to form a jelly-like mass. Half a pint is sufficient to
feed at a time. When it is preferred to boil the flax
seed, the seed, at the rate of I Ib. to 2 galls, water,
should be gradually dropped into boiling water and
stirred. For drinking purposes, the seeds should be
strained off to separate the mucilage part, and the seed
residue may be fed with hay chop, either to the same or
other horses.

Linseed oil is probably the most convenient and
safest laxative for farm live stock. For horses, 2 to 3
tablespoonfuls can be added to the provender night
and morning.

Oatmeal gruel will be readily taken by some animals,
and is very strengthening. It is made as follows: —
take i Ib. of oatmeal, add a very little cold water till
it makes a thick paste, then pour on 3 quarts boiling
water. Leave fifteen to twenty minutes, add cold water
till the gruel is body-temperature, and allow horse to
drink it.

Ground linseed-cake gruel is made in the same way
as oatmeal gruel.

Grass, forage crops, and roots have a laxative and
cooling effect when available.

When it is necessary to give a horse purgative
medicine (" physic ") without delay, its action will be
all the more certain if it has been preceded with
mashes. A useful purgative in this case would be
Barbadoes aloes, made into capsuled balls containing
4 to 6 drachms each.

300 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Ruminants — General Preventions.

Many of the ailments which affect cattle and sheep
are brought about either directly or indirectly by the
kind or quality of food given, and often in addition
through the way in which it is fed. Animals in fairly
good condition, generally speaking, resist the attacks
of disease much better than those which are in poor
condition ; it is therefore important to see that the
animals are well fed, so as to give them that stamina
or vitality which is necessary to resist disease.

Preventive measures are, after all, much better than
remedies, and may be grouped under three heads : —

(a) Avoid giving foods of inferior quality.

(/;) The concentrated foods should meet the
deficiencies of the bulky part of ration, and
be generally suitable for the purpose in view.

Quality deficient. — A large number of the present-
day pastures possess a very indifferent herbage, and
when sheep and cattle are entirely dependent on such
pasturage for their subsistence, the result is that their
bodies, being insufficiently nourished, succumb to the
ravages of various diseases or ailments.

Highland pastures. — Sheep fed on certain highland
pastures in Selkirkshire (Scotland) suffer severely from
louping ill. The writer examined some of the stretches
of low mountain pastures which were said to be " hot-
beds " for the disease, and found that the herbage on
these stretches consisted very largely of mat grass
(Nardus strictd}^ which has exceptionally hard, indigest-
ible leaves, and there is little wonder that sheep which

PREVENTING AILMENTS OF RUMINANTS 301

had to rely on this class of herbage alone for their
existence should fall a victim to this disease.

The improvement of land on mountain slopes and
high hills is not an easy matter. Sheep or open drains
are sometimes made to drain the excess of water away,
and these serve a very useful purpose, but artificial
manuring is in a good many cases more or less out of
the question on account of the difficulties of hauling,
and shallowness of the soil.

Lowland pastures. — Wet pasture-land abounds with
the eggs and embryos of internal parasites, which pull
sheep and cattle down in condition very soon, when
they are once established in the system. Further, the
herbage of wet land consists of rushes, sedges, hard-
leaved, indigestible grasses, creeping buttercups, and
other acrid plants, etc., none of which is either appetis-
ing or calculated to put the sheep and cattle into
good condition, consequently they are at a double
disadvantage, viz., disease is plentiful, and they are
insufficiently nourished to withstand it.

To improve these pastures, drainage is necessary.
This alone will tend to improve the class of herbage ;
but a dressing in winter of basic slag and kainit, or, on
soils containing sufficient lime, potassic super, will
generally be found necessary to convert the sour,
unattractive, innutritious herbage into one which is
attractive, sappy, and nutritious. The kainit will
encourage the stock to graze the old " fog " off, which
is a great advantage.

Apart from .the fact that the land carries a larger
number of stock, the animals become healthier and
thrive much better. In Herefordshire, certain fields
which were very subject to blackleg have apparently
been freed by dressing the land with basic slag.

302 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Other foods than grass may be inferior ; in fact, hay
which has been badly harvested, and cakes which have
become mouldy, are much more dangerous than poor
grass, and should, theoretically speaking, be avoided.
In practice, however, some use must generally be
made of them. It is then wise to feed them in small
quantities at a time, with much larger quantities of
clean and wholesome foods, otherwise digestive troubles
will most likely arise.

Concentrates. — When decorticated cotton cake and
soya-bean cake — both of which are exceedingly rich in
albuminoids — are fed to a larger extent than 4 Ibs. per
head per day to cattle, say, 18 months old or upwards,
there is danger of their suffering from digestive troubles
on account of the food being too concentrated. With
cattle under this age it is generally best to avoid giving
cotton cakes at all. If, however, they are fed in strict
moderation and with care, no serious result may follow.

Scouring is a common complaint in the spring of
the year, when cattle and sheep feed on young, sappy
grass. Concentrates with a laxative tendency would
only aggravate the complaint, hence any concentrates
fed at this time should have the opposite tendency,
and probably no ordinary concentrate is more potent
in this direction than Bombay cotton cake. For calves,
however, fine wheat middlings should be used in place
of Bombay cotton cake.

In the Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural
College experiments/ sheep were actually fattened off
on roots and hay, but the mortality was higher than
was the case when concentrates were fed in addition to
roots and hay.

On the other hand, "high feeding" is often attended
with serious results, more especially with breeding

FEEDING AILING RUMINANTS 303

animals. If, however, in-calf cows are kept in too high
condition, there is danger of their suffering from an
attack of milk fever shortly after giving birth to the
calf. In cases where the cows do not actually fall
victims to milk fever, their "high" condition often tells
heavily against them. The experience of all the best
breeders is that breeding animals should be given
plenty of fresh air and exercise, and receive sufficient
concentrated food to keep them in a healthy state, but
not so much as to make them in " high " condition.

Sudden changes should be avoided. — When cattle
or sheep are turned into a field of young clover in the
early autumn, it is wise policy to limit them to a few
hours' grazing in the afternoon for the first day or two.
If the stock were turned into the field in the morning
when the dew was on, and left all day, it is more than
likely that some of the stock would get "hoven" or
" blown."

The same thing applies to turning sheep on to their
first " break " of roots in the early autumn ; and in order
to prevent them " blowing," some farmers sow salt on
the first break or two of roots in the morning when
the dew is on. The sheep, therefore, get a certain
amount of salt with the leaves or tops of the turnips,
and it appears to reduce the mortality from this cause
very considerably.

The error of suddenly changing the diet is probably
the most frequent source of trouble with farm animals,
and should be carefully observed by all those persons
who have entrusted to them the feeding of farm
animals.

A few brief notes are given below for special feeding
in connection with common ailments of cattle and sheep
respectively.

304 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Common Ailments of Cattle.

Milk Fever. — It is called "milk fever," because in
the earlier stages the udder is affected ; and " parturient
apoplexy," because in the later stages of the disease
the brain is affected. It is not, strictly speaking, a
fever at all, seeing the temperature does not rise above
normal. It does not usually attack a cow till her
second or third calf. The following preventions are
important.

Cotton cakes and other highly concentrated foods
should not be fed too freely to in-calf cows. If a cow
is in too high condition, she should be kept on short
rations and given occasional bran mashes, or, if
necessary, Epsom-salts. If out at grass, it will be
necessary to bring her up, and keep her short of food
for a few days before calving. It is a good plan to
clean the udder out once a week for a month before
calving, and it is not wise to remove more than half of
the milk each time the cow is milked during the first
day, as it gives the udder a rather sudden chill.

Abortion. — Cows should be isolated, and both the
cow and the box kept carefully disinfected. Mr
Peters, Berkeley Castle Home Farm (Gloucs.), found
that it was an advantage to give cows which had
aborted J oz. crude carbolic acid daily in a bran mash,
in addition to the recognised precautionary measures
for external disinfection.

Retention of the Cleansing. — With cows that calve
somewhat prematurely, the " cleansing " or " afterbirth "
may be retained beyond the usual four hours. In such
cases the simplest treatment is to give the cow ij pints
of cod-liver oil. This usually has the desired effect
within twenty-four hours. Another specific is i Ib.

AILMENTS OF CATTLE 305

Epsom-salts, J Ib. ground ginger, and J Ib. ground
caraway seeds.

Impaction of the Rumen (first stomach). — This
generally attacks cattle which are rather low in condi-
tion which have been feeding on poor, bulky foods such
as straw and roots, or poor pasture plants, or in fact
highly concentrated foods which are fed dry. For a
remedial measure give cow I Ib. Epsom-salts as a
drench. A bran and linseed mash could be given
twice daily, followed with some oatmeal gruel which
has \ Ib. treacle stirred into it.

Impaction of the Omasum (third stomach). — This
is also called fardel bound, and is caused in much the
same way as impaction of the rumen.

The following very useful and effective old-fashioned
remedy may be used : — This is made by taking \ Ib. fat
bacon and some onions. Both of these should be
chopped up into small pieces, and then boiled with
2 to 3 pints of water for twenty minutes to half
an hour. While the liquid is boiling, add 6 to 8 ozs.
Epsom-salts, \ oz. ground ginger, J oz. saltpetre, i oz.
common salt, and a little cayenne pepper. After the
fat bacon and onions have been boiled sufficiently, take
off fire, and stir in I oz. of bi-carbonate of soda, and J Ib.
of treacle. When sufficiently cool, drench the cow with
the mixture.

This mixture may be used for dairy cows as a general
remedy when they are out of sorts. In the writer's experi-
ence this remedy has invariably had the desired effect.

Hoven or Blown. — When urgent, the paunch or
rumen should be punctured. The mixture for " impac-
tion of omasum" may be given, but the Epsom-salts
and the ginger should be increased by one-half of
the quantities named above.

306 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

The general treatment for fevers and ailments due
to errors of diet, under Horses, apply equally to cattle.

Hoose. — On land where calves are subject to husk
or hoose, they should be given dry concentrated food
altogether, and if a large proportion of the calves get it
each year, they should be kept up at night, and in very
bad cases not allowed to go out during the first year, as
this disease pulls them down in condition very badly.
It is also wise to house them early in the autumn, or
provide them with shelter in the field, where they can
have hay in addition to cake.

Affected calves should be taken inside, and given
nutritious food, and a dose of 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of
turpentine in I pint linseed tea, on two successive days.
The turpentine then finds its way through the circula-
tion into the lungs, where it comes in contact with the
lung worms in the air-passages, thus enabling the calf
to expel them by coughing.

If the complaint becomes serious, it may be
necessary to inject a suitable solution into the windpipe
so as to come more directly in contact with the husk
worms. A hypodermic syringe is necessary for this
purpose, and enables one after piercing the windpipe
.between two of its rings, to force 2 drachms of husk-
mixture into the windpipe three times a day, at
intervals of three days. The following is a very
suitable mixture for (intertracheal) injection into the
windpipe :—

Olive oil . . . . . ioo parts

Oil of turpentine . . . . 2 ,,

Chloroform . . . . 2 „

Pure carbolic acid . . . 2 „

Contagious White Scour. — This disease is due to

TREATING AILMENTS OF YOUNG CATTLE 307

a specific organism (bacteria), which finds its way into
the blood either through the navel or the mouth. In
bad cases, the calf's eyes appear sunken about the
second or third day after the attack. It takes very
little food, commences scouring, and probably dies next
day. The end is so sudden that there is not much hope
of saving its life when the disease has once got a hold.
Remedies are not of much avail in this case, the great
thing is prevention on the following lines :—

1. The calf box should be cleaned out and

thoroughly disinfected before admission of
calves in spring, and at subsequent periods of
two or three months. The floor should be
well dusted with powdered lime, and the walls
lime-washed. The lime-wash should have some
carbolic added. Clean litter may then be
placed on the floor to make a comfortable bed
for the calf.

2. The calf box must be well lighted and well

ventilated, so as to assist in the destruction of
disease germs. The best arrangement is to
have window-ventilators, which are hinged
along the bottom. The window then opens
inwards and guides the incoming air against
the roof before it is reflected on the calves.

These two preventions were sufficient in
the writer's experience to rid the disease out
of a dark, unventilated calf box, which was a
veritable death-trap for calves introduced into
it. But two or three other precautions may
be taken :

3. Disinfect the navel of the calf with a 2 per cent.

solution of lysol at birth.

308 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

4. Avoid gorging the calfs stomach with milk or

giving it any milk substitutes for at least two
weeks; and after that, any change in the diet
should be made very gradually.

5. Give calf a tablespoonful of castor oil in milk as

soon as it shows signs of sickening or scouring.

Black Leg. — There is considerable difference of
opinion with regard to the best preventive means for
black leg. Those who blame the water for carrying the
organism into the system of the young cattle believe
in fencing off stagnant pools, purifying the streams and
the ponds by throwing a few cobs or clots of lime into
the water. Others consider it enters with the grass or
the hay from certain fields which are favourable to the
existence of this organism ; hence the grass and hay
from these fields should be consumed by older stock.
It is generally considered advisable to move young
cattle from low-lying fields to higher ground in autumn
when fogs are common.

Some pastures which have for many years been
considered " hot-beds " for this disease have ceased to
be dangerous since the land has been dressed with basic
slag, doubtless due indirectly to the improvement of
quality in the herbage. Naturally, draining should
precede the dressing of basic slag if the land is wet.

Another preventive which is widely used, is a
teaspoonful of flowers of sulphur in the concentrated
food at weekly intervals during the autumn and winter ;
while last, but not least, linseed cake is said to be an
effectual preventive against this malady.

There is nothing impracticable about any of these
preventive measures. It must be wise policy to provide
water for the cattle free from contamination, to give

TREATMENT OF LIVE STOCK AILMENTS 309

the pasture a dressing of basic slag and possibly kainit,
as well as to feed linseed cake to them.

Sheep Ailmenta

Sheep being ruminants require very similar treat-
ment to cattle, but flock remedies have often to be
adopted.

Internal Parasites (hoose, liver fluke, louping ill,
etc.). — These appear to be checked considerably by
sowing a dressing of salt on the pastures. A lump of
rock salt should also be available for them to lick.

With husk and hoose in lambs, turnip tops are
very useful, since they contain volatile substances
which escape through the lungs into the air and on
their way come in contact with the hoose worms,
causing them to be expectorated.

Hoven, etc. — Sheep are lost each autumn either
from scouring or hoven, more especially when they
are turned on to the first break or two of roots or
even young clover, where they are tempted to eat
too much. In the case of turnips, some farmers sow
salt over the first break of roots when they are moist
with dew, with the result that their losses from the
above cause are very considerably reduced. On
young clover the sheep should only be allowed to
feed for a very limited period during the first day or
two.

Ailments of Pigs.

Pigs which are kept up altogether often become
unthrifty, simply because they are not getting the
earthy matter and grass which appear to be necessary
to keep them in health. A little fresh air and exercise
are also invaluable.

310 THE STOCKFEEDER'S COMPANION

Rickets. — Try and prevent this by adding pea or
bean meal to the cereal grains being fed. Bone meal
may also be added to the ration. The pigs should be
allowed to sleep on a wood floor.

Salt-poisoning. — Salt or brine should not, as a
rule, be fed to pigs, more especially when they are
receiving sharps that are slightly acid, or fatal results
may follow through salt-poisoning. Poultry are even
more easily poisoned with salt than pigs.

INDEX

Aberdeen-Angus, 204

Abortion, 304

Absorption of food by plants, 29

of minerals by plants, 6
Acorns, 65
Ailments of cattle, 304

of horses, 294

of pigs, 309

of ruminants, general, 300
preventions of, 300

of sheep, 309
Albuminoid ratio, 103
Albuminoids, 9, 35
Albuminous substance, 2
Alchemy, 4
Aleurone layer, 66, 67
Amides, 9, 37
Amino-acids, 28
Ammonia, 9
Amylopsin, 28
Animal body, composition of, 13

Kingdom, i, 2, 3
Animals, 2
Aniseed, 77
Apple pomace, 75
Ash constituents, 10, 12, 16,

39, 82

Astringent action of foods, 62
Atmosphere, 7

Baby beef production, 208
Bacon, effect of foods, 279

(firm), 281

pigs, 269
311

Bacon, soft, 280

tainted, 281
Bacon-curing, 286
Bacteria, 28
Barley, 93
by-products, 70
straw, 80
Bast, 9

Bean straw, 80
Beef cattle, 201, 204
Beet sugar molasses, 78
Bile, 27

Bitter milk, 190
Black leg in cattle. 308
Blood, circulation of, 31
Body temperature, 19
Bombay cotton cake, 61
Bonner, Chas., 4
Bony diseases (horses), 297
Bran, 66, 69

mash, 298 ^
Brewers' grains, 71
Brown and Duvel, 1 1
Buckwheat, 66
Bulky foods, 43
Butter tests, 171
Butter-fat, 177
Buttermaking, 164
By-products (barley), 70
(maize), 73
(rice), 75
(wheat), 66

Cabbages, 81
Calf, 17
meals, 155

312

INDEX

Calf-feeding, 146, 152

Calf- rearing experiments, 158

Calves, cost of rearing, 161

Cane sugar molasses, 77

Carbohydrates, 7, 12, 32

Carbon fixation, 7
dioxide gas, 7

Carbonate of magnesia, 17

Carcass competitions (pigs), 287
(sheep), 260

Carrots, 81

Catalytic action, 23

Cattle, 163

Cereal grains, 65
straws, 80

Chaffing hay, etc., 128

Cheesemaking, 165

Chlorophyll, 7

Chyle, 30

Climate, effect of, on composi-
tion of plants, 83

Clover hay, 79

Cocoa-nut cake, 59
kernels, 53

Colostrum, 176, 177

Compensating nutrient mate-
rial, 40

Complete manures, 5

Composition of foods, impor-
tance of. 1 02

Compound cakes, 63

Compounding rations, 101

Concentrates, 43, 187, 188, 220,
253, 302

Condimental foods, 76, 131

Contagious white scour, 306

Cooking foods, 130

Coprah cake, 59

Coriander, 77

Cotton seed, 49
cake, 56

Cummins, 71

Dairy cattle, 163

Dairying, different systems, 200

Dari, 65

Decorticated cotton cake, 56

De Saussure, 4

Devon cattle (North), 206

Dietetic errors, 296

Digby, 5

Digestibility of foods, 95

Digestion, 21, 24

Distillery grains, 72

Early lamb production, 243
Earth-nut cake, 57
Economy in feeding, 228
Egyptian cotton cake, 61
Energy, 21
Enzymes, 22
Epidermis, 8
Excretion, 42

Farm horses, 132
Fat, 9, 15, 33

Fattening of cattle at grass,
210

of cattle, cost of, 229

of pigs, 267
Fatty acids, 178
Feeding of cows, cost of, 197

of pigs, 260

of sheep, 241, 250

of sick animals, 292

stuffs, 43

trials (cattle), 216
(pigs), 272
(sheep), 255
Fenugreek, 76
Ferments, 22
Fevers of horses, 294
Fibre, 10, 12, 38
Fine middlings, 68
Flax seed, 44
Flour, 66, 68
Fodder crops, 79, 1 86, 216

INDEX

313

Folding sheep, 249
Food and increase (pigs), 284
standards, 109

(cattle), 112, 1 1 6, 192, 221

(horses), no

(pigs), 114, 117

(sheep), 114
units, 120
Foods, weight of (by measure),

285

Forage crops, 81, 88, 93, 252
Functions of food nutrients, 31

Galloway cattle, 205
Gastric juice, 26
Gentian, 77
Ginger, 77
Gluten, 66

feed, 74

meal, 74
Glycogen, 30
Gram, 64
Grain, whole z/. meals for pigs,

282

Grass, 299

Grieg and Hendrick, 83
Ground-nut cakes, 57
Ground-nuts, 51
Gruels, 298
Guard cells, 8

Hams, curing of, 287
Hay, 252
Haymaking, 123
Helmont, Van, 4
Hemp cake, 62

seed, 51

Henry, Prof., 31
Hereford cattle, 205, 231
Hoose, 306
Horses, feeding of brood mares,

133
of foal, 134

Horses, feeding of sick, 292

of work-, 135

of young, 134
cost of feeding, 142
House fattening of cattle, 211
Housing cattle, systems of, 212
Hoven, 305
Humus, 4

Impaction of the omasum, 305

of the rumen, 305
Improving poor old pasture, 92
Indian pea, 64
Individuality of animals, 97
Ingenhaus, 4
Italian rye grass, 94

Java beans, 64
Jordan, Prof., 33

Kapok cakes, 62

seeds, 52

Kellner, Dr, 29, 33, 37, 39, 41
Kernel, 66
Kiln drying, 70

Lamb, fat, 17

production of early, 243
Lawes and Gilbert, 14, 16, 17
Laxativeness of foods, 107
Leguminous seeds, 64

straws, 80
Lime, 17
Linseed, 44

cake, 54

jelly, 298

314

INDEX

Linseed mash, 298

oil, 299

Live weight increase, composi-
tion of, 1 6

Live weights of cattle, 232
Locust beans, 76
Lucerne, 81, 94
Lymphatics, 29

Magnesia, 17
Maintenance, 20
Maize, 65, 94
bran, 75
flaked, 74
germ cake, 58

meal, 74
Makbar, 78
Malt coombs, 71

mashes, 298
Malting of barley, 70
Mangels, 81, 275
Manorial residue, 122, 124,

125, 126

Manuring, effect of, on compo-
sition of plants, 84
Margarine, 178
Mashes, 298
Mastication, 24

Maturity, effect of, on composi-
tion of plants, 86
effect of, on digestibility of

plants, 100
Mechanical work, 20
Middlings, 66, 68, 69
Milk, 17
effect of soils and manures,

179
of breed and individuality,

181

of period of lactation, 182
of age of cow, 1 82
of food, 185

first and last drawn, 183
morning and evening, 184
production, cost of, 196

Milk secretion, 172

selling, 164

returns from, 198
Milking, art of, 194

machines, 196

trials, 169
Millet, 65

Milling process, 67
Mineral matter, 10, 16

theory, 5
Minerals, 5
Moisture, 11
Molascuit, 79
Molasses, 77, 78
Molassine, 79
Molastella, 78
Mustard, 95
Mutton production, 247

Nitrate of soda, 17
Nitrates, 9
Nitrogen, 5, 17
Nitrogenous matter, 10
Nutrient constituents, 10
Nutritive values of foods, 45
Nutting of foods, 128

Oat by-products, 72

dust, 73

husks, 73

straw, 80
Oatmeal, 72

gruel, 299
Oats, 65, 93
Oil, 9, 12

extraction, 48
Oil-cakes, 53, 59
Organised ferments, 22
Osmosis, 6
Ox, 17
Oxygen, 7

INDEX

315

Palatability of foods, 109
Palisade parenchyma, 8
Palm-kernel cake, 59
Palm-nut cake, 59

kernels, 53
Pancreatic juice, 27
Para rubber seed cake, 58
Parasites of sheep, 309
Pasture grass, 81, 88
Pea straw, 80
Pea-nuts, 51
Pepsin, 26
Perspiration, 42
Phloem, 9
Phosphates, 5
Phosphoric acid, 17
Phosphorus, 9
Pig meals, 278
Pig-feeding, 260, 267
Piglings, feeding of, 264
Pigs, 17

store, 266
Plants, 2

Pork production, 268
Potash, 5, 7, 17
Potatoes, 8 1, 276
Preparing foods for stock, 1 23
Priestley, 4
Production, 20
Proteids, 9
Protein, 15
Protoplasm, 2
Pulping roots, 128
Pulse beats (horses), 293

Rape, 8 1, 95

cakes, 60

seed, 52
Rations (beef cattle), 224

(dairy cows), 191

(horses), 139

(pigs), 282

(sheep), 254

Red-polled cattle, 205
Relation between food and

increase, 229
Rennin, 26
Reproduction, 2
Respiration, 5, 41

chamber, 96

(horses), 294
Rice, 65

by-products, 75

meal, 75

Rickets of pigs, 309
Root crops, 81, 186, 217, 275
Root-hairs, 6
Root-pressure, 6
Ruminant, 24, 98, 300
Rumination, 25
Rye, 65, 93

straw, 80

Sainfoin, 94

Salt poisoning of pigs, 309

Score card (beef cattle), 230

(dairy cow), 201

(horses), 144
Seconds, 66
Seed-coat, 67
Seeds mixture for permanent

pasture, 89
Semolina, 68
Senebier, Jean, 5
Separated milk, 272
Sesame cake, 59
Sheep, 17

Short v. long feeding, 139
Shorthorn cattle, 205
Silage, 127 ^
vSmall intestines, 27
Smithfield Show (cattle), 233

(pigs), 287

(sheep), 258

Softening coarse foods, 129
Soiling crops, 93
Soya bean, 5 1

cake, 57

316

INDEX

Soya treacle cake, 79
Spent hops, 76
Starch, 7

Starchy endosperm, 67
Steaming foods, 130
Steapsin, 28
Steeping foods, 129
Stomach, 26
Stomata, 7
Store pigs, 270
Sugar, 8

beet, 8 1

Sulphate of potash, 17
Sulphur, 9
Sunflower cake, 62

seeds, 52

Superphosphate of lime, 17
Swede, 81

Tares, 95

Temperature of horses, 293

Thaer, 4

Thirds, 66

Tilth, 4

Timothy meadows, 91

Transpiration, 6

Trefoil, 95

Trifolium, 95

Trypsin, 28

Tull, Jethro, 4

Undecorticated cotton cake, 60
Unorganised ferments, 22

Valuation of foods. 120
Variation in composition of

plants, 83
Variety, effect of, on composi

tion of plants, 83
Vealing of calves, 146
Vegetable Kingdom, 2
Vein, 29
Vetch straw, 80
Vetches, 81, 95
Villi, 29

Warming foods, 130

Water, 15, 39

Water-vapour, 7

Watering horses, 142

Weather, effect of, on composi-
tion of plants, 87

Weight of cattle by measure-
ment, 230

Welsh cattle, 206

West Highland cattle, 206

Wheat, 65

by-products, 66
straw, 80

Whey, 272

White scour, 306

Wood vessels, 6

Wool, 17

Work, effect of, on digestibility,
100

PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

LIBRARY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DAVIS
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Book Slip-10m-8,'49(B5851s4)458

727in

SP9S

Porter, J.

P^^

The stockf

eeder1 s

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